國(guó)際貿(mào)易外文翻譯-美國(guó)歐洲農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘

PAGEPAGE36中文3680字外文文獻(xiàn)譯文資料來(lái)源：Silvia Weyerbrock.Technical Trade Barriers in US/EuropeAgriculturalTrad[D]NewarUniversityofDelaware200．作者：SilviaWeyerbrock美國(guó)/歐洲農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘摘要技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘嚴(yán)重影響了美國(guó)/歐洲的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易。一項(xiàng)1996年美國(guó)農(nóng)5789955易。本文為個(gè)案研究提供了一個(gè)背景，并對(duì)技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘的未來(lái)作用下了定論。由于貿(mào)易規(guī)則的變更，更高的食品安全和食品質(zhì)量的需求以及歐盟的東歐國(guó)家，我們希望美國(guó)/歐洲的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘能夠在將來(lái)得到發(fā)展。什么是技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘？美國(guó)/性貿(mào)易壁壘沒(méi)有統(tǒng)一的定義。研究人員建議把定義建立在意圖，經(jīng)濟(jì)影響，工具使用的基礎(chǔ)之上。Thornsbury（1997年DeRemer（1997年）國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)上銷(xiāo)售的法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn),并且這些法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的表面目的是為了糾正與羅伯茨和DeRemer，1997）的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)措施。除了技術(shù)法規(guī)，羅伯茨和DeRemer強(qiáng)調(diào)，表明符合外國(guó)法規(guī)可能成為一個(gè)技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘有別于其他貿(mào)易壁壘的原因在于它可以產(chǎn)生經(jīng)濟(jì)效率。而的規(guī)則是有難度的（DeReme，1997。為了遏制近年來(lái)盛行的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘，關(guān)貿(mào)總協(xié)定的成員國(guó)組織了關(guān)于動(dòng)植物衛(wèi)生檢疫措施協(xié)議（SPS）和技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議（TBT）的談判，作為烏拉圭回合談判的一部分（19941994b大大加強(qiáng)了對(duì)技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘使用的國(guó)際規(guī)則。所有世貿(mào)組織的成員國(guó)都受到了這些協(xié)議的制約。該協(xié)議規(guī)定，動(dòng)植物衛(wèi)生檢疫措施和技術(shù)措施，不應(yīng)成為變相的貿(mào)易壁壘或以武斷或歧視性的方式被使用。他們應(yīng)該只被適用于必要的（年b）為基礎(chǔ)。各國(guó)被鼓勵(lì)使用由國(guó)際科學(xué)組織制定的國(guó)際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，諸如食品規(guī)范委員會(huì)，國(guó)際獸疫局OI）和國(guó)際植物保護(hù)公約IPP的理由是科學(xué)或一個(gè)非歧視性的更低水平的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的話，他們可能保持比國(guó)際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)更為嚴(yán)格的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在協(xié)調(diào)統(tǒng)一的情況下，世貿(mào)組織的成員國(guó)被鼓勵(lì)運(yùn)用等效和談判的原則，例如，獸醫(yī)等效協(xié)議。等效意味著相同的健康保障水平可以由（世界貿(mào)易組織，1994b）決定。美國(guó)/歐洲的貿(mào)易壁壘概覽在一項(xiàng)美國(guó)科學(xué)家聯(lián)合會(huì)，美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)和美國(guó)貿(mào)易組織的調(diào)查中，DeRemer（1997年）1996月美國(guó)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口的貿(mào)易壁壘。這些壁壘包括市場(chǎng)準(zhǔn)入壁壘，市場(chǎng)拓展壁壘和市場(chǎng)保留壁壘。市場(chǎng)準(zhǔn)入壁壘，包括進(jìn)口禁令；市場(chǎng)擴(kuò)大壁壘有限，但并不排除美國(guó)的出口；市場(chǎng)保留壁壘是目前正在考慮的措施，一旦獲得通過(guò)則很可能DeRemer特別是美國(guó)的影響，也不包括美國(guó)的壁壘對(duì)歐盟進(jìn)口的影響。該調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)了歐洲的57個(gè)貿(mào)易壁壘并對(duì)美國(guó)的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口產(chǎn)生了估計(jì)有價(jià)值89955萬(wàn)美元的貿(mào)易影響。其中的6個(gè)貿(mào)易壁壘產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)估計(jì)有超過(guò)5000萬(wàn)美元/人的個(gè)人貿(mào)易影響（2。這些壁壘共計(jì)占所有估計(jì)貿(mào)易影響61.812DeRemer（1997）23條美國(guó)/500萬(wàn)的貿(mào)易影響?？紤]到產(chǎn)品包含貿(mào)易壁壘，調(diào)查顯示，許多壁壘影響美國(guó)出口至歐洲的動(dòng)物產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易（247730萬(wàn)美元，占所有歐洲壁壘估計(jì)貿(mào)易影響的53％。相比之下，在世界上的所有其10730萬(wàn)美元。此外，出口加工食品1（DeReme1997美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部調(diào)查報(bào)告是關(guān)于技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘影響美國(guó)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口的最全面的調(diào)查。它通過(guò)詳細(xì)說(shuō)明這些壁壘是如何遍布的來(lái)為技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘找到光明。但是，其結(jié)果應(yīng)被仔細(xì)解釋為幾個(gè)原因：這項(xiàng)調(diào)查涵蓋市場(chǎng)保留壁壘（即正在審議的壁壘確定的。最后，出于保密的原因，羅伯茨和DeRemer（1997）體的問(wèn)題。由于缺乏信息，因此很難評(píng)估各種估計(jì)的可靠性。21996年美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部調(diào)查報(bào)告中發(fā)現(xiàn)的歐洲的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易貿(mào)易壁壘數(shù)量(貿(mào)易壁壘數(shù)量(百萬(wàn)美元)估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響(ETI)ETI大于5000萬(wàn)美元6555.81ETI在5萬(wàn)美元和4999萬(wàn)美元之間23307.73ETI小于5萬(wàn)美元3836.01共計(jì)57899.55按估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響：續(xù)表按估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響：按產(chǎn)品種類(lèi)*：所以產(chǎn)品00.00水果和蔬菜00.00谷類(lèi)和飼料谷類(lèi)7108.81動(dòng)物產(chǎn)品牛肉7157.80豬肉568.50牛肉和豬肉150.00所有動(dòng)物產(chǎn)品2201.00其他產(chǎn)品待加工產(chǎn)品13112.91種子225.00林木類(lèi)476.00魚(yú)類(lèi)21.00共計(jì)*43*801.12*注意事項(xiàng)：只有當(dāng)（1）提供超過(guò)10個(gè)貿(mào)易壁壘，或者（2）估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響超過(guò)5000萬(wàn)美元時(shí)，產(chǎn)品種類(lèi)的信息可供提供。Thornsbury等人（1997年；羅伯茨和DeRemer（1997年。具體措施本節(jié)會(huì)提出近期具體的美國(guó)/歐洲農(nóng)業(yè)貿(mào)易的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘。除了研究歐洲壁壘對(duì)美國(guó)進(jìn)口的影響，我們也會(huì)探討美國(guó)壁壘對(duì)歐洲進(jìn)口的影響。我們明確普遍存在這種壁壘的領(lǐng)域，并試圖概略估計(jì)它們的貿(mào)易影響。我們的調(diào)查沒(méi)有提供關(guān)于美國(guó)/歐洲貿(mào)易的技術(shù)壁壘的系統(tǒng)證據(jù)。這需要一個(gè)詳細(xì)的評(píng)估，它關(guān)于許多標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和法規(guī)以及一個(gè)關(guān)于許多國(guó)家出口的全面的格拉歐洲（報(bào)刊名于美國(guó)貿(mào)易和投資的壁壘的歐盟委員會(huì)報(bào)告。我們省略了這些出版物沒(méi)有提及的貿(mào)易壁壘，可能有許多技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘與合格評(píng)定和執(zhí)行方面相關(guān)。（1998年美國(guó)在論文上引發(fā)的歐盟荷爾蒙爭(zhēng)端以外，關(guān)于美國(guó)/歐洲的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘對(duì)價(jià)格和社會(huì)福利的影響的定量的經(jīng)濟(jì)研究仍處于莫衷一是的狀態(tài)。有時(shí)，新聞和其他來(lái)源確定存在威脅或存在壁壘的貿(mào)表3節(jié)選的美國(guó)/歐洲技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘的近似的貿(mào)易影響貿(mào)易壁壘貿(mào)易壁壘近似的貿(mào)易影響（百萬(wàn)美元)美國(guó)的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘美國(guó)的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘針對(duì)歐盟牛肉和羊肉的壁壘針對(duì)各種農(nóng)藥的壁壘(德萊尼修正案)(威脅)歐盟出口酒到美國(guó)(1995年)歐盟出口橄欖油到美國(guó)(1994/95年)a針對(duì)西班牙豬肉制品的壁壘21,01570,000西班牙出口紅肉到美國(guó)(1995年)b歐盟的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘0.4針對(duì)美國(guó)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)參考樣品的歐盟壁壘14,000(最大威脅但是有可能有許多例外)針對(duì)美國(guó)激素處理牛肉的歐盟壁壘針對(duì)美國(guó)新鮮肉類(lèi)和禽類(lèi)的歐盟壁壘(威脅)針對(duì)美國(guó)禽類(lèi)的歐盟壁壘10010054針對(duì)轉(zhuǎn)基因生物的歐盟壁壘美國(guó)谷物出口到歐盟(1995年針對(duì)波蘭乳制品的歐盟壁壘433EC60東歐的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘針對(duì)美國(guó)禽肉的東歐可能壁壘c針對(duì)美國(guó)激素處理牛肉的保加利亞壁壘1602.5俄羅斯的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘針對(duì)美國(guó)禽肉的俄羅斯壁壘(威脅但并沒(méi)有被實(shí)施)840在1994到1995的出口都受到了貿(mào)易壁壘的影響。數(shù)據(jù)適用于所有紅肉但豬肉除外。199716000萬(wàn)美元。DeRemer6的重大現(xiàn)實(shí)問(wèn)題。其他問(wèn)題可能會(huì)被同時(shí)解決。外文文獻(xiàn)原文MaterialSource:SilviaWeyerbrock.TechnicalTradeBarriersinUS/EuropeAgriculturalTrade[D].Newark：UniversityofDelaware，2000．Author:SilviaWeyerbrockTechnicalTradeBarriersinUS/EuropeAgriculturalTradeAbstractTechnicalbarriersstronglyaffectUS/Europeanagriculturalandfoodtrade.A1996USDAsurveyidentifies57questionableEuropeanregulationsaffectingUSagriculturalexportswithanestimatedtradeimpactof$899.55million.ThisarticleidentifiesEuropeanandUStechnicalregulationsthatimpedebilateraltrade.Thearticleprovidesabackgroundforcasestudiesanddrawsconclusionsregardingthefutureroleoftechnicalbarriers.WeexpectthattechnicalbarriersinUS/Europewillproliferateinthefuturebecauseofchangesin traderules,higherdemandforfoodsafetyandvariousfoodqualityattributes,andEUmembershipofEasternEuropeancountries.WhatisaTechnicalBarriertoTrade?US/Europeagriculturaltradeisstronglyaffectedbytechnicalbarrierstotrade.Asmentionedabovethereisnocommonlyagreedupondefinitionoftechnicalbarrierstotrade.Researchershaveproposeddefinitionsbasedonintent,economicimpact,andinstrumentsused.InthissurveywefollowadefinitionproposedbyThornsburyetal.(1997)andRobertsandDeRemer(1997).Theydefinetechnicalbarriersas“internationallydivergentregulationsandstandardsgoverningthesaleofproductsinnationalmarkets which have as their prima facie objective the correction of inefficiencies stemming from externalities associated with the distribution,andconsumptionoftheseproducts.”Thisdefinitionincludesstandardsofidentity,measure,andquality,andSPS,globalcommons,andpackagingmeasures.It,however,excludesincentivemeasuressuchassubsidiesandtaxes(Roberts&DeRemer,1997).Inadditiontothetechnicalregulations,RobertsandDeRemerstressthatdemonstratingconformitytoaforeignregulationcanbeatechnicalbarrier.Technicaltradebarriersdifferfrommanyothertradebarriersbecausetheycanbeeconomicallyefficient.Moreover,SPSregulationsarenot“mostfavorednation,”i.e.,differenttradingpartnersmayneedtocomplywithdifferentconditionsforgainingaccessto,animportingcountry’smarket.Consequently,designingeffectiverulesforsuchmeasuresisdifficult(Roberts&DeRemer,1997).Tostemtheproliferationoftechnicalbarriersinrecentyears,GATTmembersnegotiatedAgreementsonSanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures(SPS)andTechnicalBarrierstoTrade(TBT)aspartoftheUruguayRoundAgreement(WorldTradeOrganization, 1994a, 1994b). These agreements considerably strengtheninternationalrulesontheuseoftechnicalbarriers.AllWTOmembersarenowsubjectto these agreements. Theagreements specifythat SPS andtechnicalmeasuresshouldnotbeusedasdisguisedtradebarriersorinanarbitraryordiscriminatorymanner.Theyshouldonlybeappliedtotheextentnecessaryandmustbebasedonscientificprinciplesandonriskassessment(WorldTradeOrganization, 1994a, 1994b). Countries are encouraged to use internationalstandardsdevelopedbyinternationalscientificorganizationssuchastheCodexAlimentariusCommission,theInternationalOfficeofEpizootics(OIE),andtheInternationalPlantProtectionConvention(IPPC).Countries,however,maymaintainstandardsthatarestricterthaninternationalstandards,iftheyarejustifiedbyscienceorbyanondiscriminatorylowerlevelofrisk.Intheabsenceofharmonization,WTOmembersareencouragedtoapplytheprincipleofequivalencyandnegotiate,forexample,veterinaryequivalenceagreements.Equivalencyimpliesthatthesamelevelofhealthprotectioncanbeachievedbydifferentmethods(WorldTradeOrganization,1994b).Regulationsandstandardsshouldbeconsideredequivalentifonecountrycanshowthatitsmeasures—albeitdifferent—meettheothercountry’slegitimateobjectives.Equivalenceagreementsallowproductstobetradedwithminimalcustomschecks.Ifeachsiderecognizestheotherparty’splantinspectionprocedures,visitsofinspectorstoforeignproductionandprocessingfacilitiesbecomeunnecessary.AnothernovelfeatureoftheSPSagreement,theprincipleofregionalization,suggeststhatdiseaseorpest-freestatusshouldbeconsideredontheregionalratherthanthecountrylevel.Ifacountrycandemonstratethatanareaofitscountryis,andislikelytoremain,diseaseorpest-freethanimportingcountriesshouldnotplacerestrictionsongoodsfromthisarea.Finally,countriescannoteasilyrejectapaneldecisionbasedonthenewlyestablisheddisputesettlementmechanismanylonger.TechnicalRegulationsinUS/EuropeTradeOverviewInasurveyofFASattaches,USDAregulatoryagencies,andUStradeorganizations,RobertsandDeRemer(1997)identifyquestionableregulationsintheEU,EasternEurope,andtheFSUthataffectedUSagriculturalexportsinJune1996.Suchbarriersincludemarketaccess,marketexpansion,andmarketretentionbarriers.Marketaccessbarriersincludeimportbans;marketexpansionbarrierslimitbutdonot preclude US exports; and market retention barriers are measures underconsideration,whichmayadverselyaffectUSexports,ifenacted.RobertsandDeRemeraskedtheattachesandtradeorganizationstoestimatethetradeimpactofsuchbarriersintermsofthevalueofcurrentUSexportrevenuethatisthreatenedandcouldbepotentiallylost.PleasenotethatthesurveyonlycoversquestionablemeasuresaffectingUSexportstocountriescoveredbyoverseasFASoffices.ItdoesneithercoverquestionableEuropeanmeasuresaffectingcountriesotherthantheUSnorUSmeasuresaffectingEuropeanimports.Thesurveyfinds57questionablemeasuresinEuropewithanestimatedtradeimpactonUSagriculturalandfoodexportsof$899.55million.Sixofthesequestionablemeasureshaveanestimatedindividualtradeimpactofmorethan$50millioneach(Table2).Togetherthesebarriersaccountfor61.8%ofthetotalestimatedtradeimpact.Surveyrespondentsidentifiedonly12othermeasuresworldwide with such a largeimpact. Roberts and DeRemer (1997) find regulationsinUS/Europetradewithanestimatedtradeimpactofmorethanmillion.Consideringtheproductcoverageofquestionablemeasures,thesurveyshowsthatmanybarriersaffectingUSexportstoEuropeaffecttradeinanimalproducts(Table2).Theestimatedtradeimpact ofallbarriersonanimal productsismillionandaccountsfor53%ofestimatedtotaltradeimpactsofallEuropeanbarriers.Bycomparison,inallothercountriesoftheworldonly$107.3millionexportsofanimalproductsaresubjectedtoquestionablebarriers.Moreover,exportsofprocessedfoodsandgrainsexceeding$100millionrespectivelyareaffectedbyquestionablebarriers(Roberts&DeRemer,1997).TheUSDAsurveyisthefirstcomprehensivesurveyoftechnicaltradebarriersaffectingUSagriculturalexports.IthasshedthelightonTBTsbydetailinghowpervasivesuchbarriersare.However,itsresultsshouldbeinterpretedcarefullyforseveralreasons.Theexpertsconsultedarelikelytobebiased:thegoalofFASattachesandtradeorganizationsistopromoteUSagriculturalexports.TheregulatoryagenciesusedtovettheirestimatesarelikelytotaketheUSstanceonissuessuchasthescientificjustificationandconformityofvariousmeasureswiththenewtradeagreements.SomeexpertsmayhavebeenawarethattheUSmayconsiderinitiatingdisputesettlementproceduresbasedontheirreports.Thesurveycoversmarketretentionbarriers(i.e.,barriersunderconsideration)whoseadoptionandimplementationareuncertain.Finally,forconfidentialityreasons,RobertsandDeRemer(1997)couldnotidentifyspecificissues.Lackingthisinformation,itisdifficulttoassessreliabilityofvariousestimates.NumberofBarriers(millionNumberofBarriers(million$)EstimatedTradeImpact(ETI)Byestimatedtradeimpact:Byproductcategory*:AnimalproductsETIlargerthan$50million6555.81ETIbetween$5millionand$49.99million23307.73ETIsmallerthan$5million3836.01Total57899.55Allproducts00.00Fruitsandvegetables00.00GrainsandfeedGrains7108.81ContinuedBeef7157.80Pork568.50Beefandpork150.00Allanimalproducts2201.00OtherproductsFurtherprocessedproducts13112.91Seeds225.00Forestry476.00Fish21.00Total*43*801.12*Note:Informationforproductcategoriesonlygivenif(1)morethan10barriersapply,or(2)iftheETIexceeds$50million.Source:Thornsburyetal.(1997);RobertsandDeRemer(1997).SpecificMeasuresThis section identifies recent and current specific technical barriers US/Europeagriculturaltrade.InadditiontostudyingEuropeanbarriersonUSimports,wealsoexploreUS barriersonEuropeanimports.Weidentifysectorsinwhichsuchbarriersareprevalentandattempttoapproximatetheirtradeimpact.OursurveydoesnotprovidesystematicevidenceontechnicalbarriersinUS/Europetrade.Thisrequiresadetailedassessmentofmanystandardsandregulationsandacomprehensivesurveyofexportersinmanycountries.Instead,ourstudyisbasedoninformationfoundinresearchpapers,newspapers,andindustryandagencypublicationssuchasAgra-Europe,documentsoftheUSForeignAgriculturalService,andaEuropeanCommissionReportonUSBarrierstoTradeandInvestment.Weomitquestionablemeasuresnotmentionedinsuchpublicationsand,possibly,manyTBTsrelatedtoconformityassessmentandenforcement.Inthisarticle,weattempttoapproximatethetradeimpactofvariousTBTs.Unfortunately,withtheexceptionofPeterson,Paggi,andHenry’spaper(1998)otheUS/EUhormonedispute,quantitativeeconomicstudiesonthepriceandwelfareeffectsofTBTsinUS/Europetradeareunavailableatthispoint.Occasionally,newsandothersourcesidentifythetradeimpactofthreatenedorexistingbarriers.Ifnodataareavailable,weapproximatethemaximumpossibleimpactof,forexample,animportban,bygivinginformationonthetradevolumebeforetheban.Note,however,thatthisestimateislikelytobeanoverstatement.Importbansarefrequently linked to specific production and processing techniques. If a USprocessingfirmfollowsEUguidelines,itmaystillbeabletodobusinesswiththeEU.TradeBarrierApproximateTradeImpact(inmillion$)UStechnicalbarriersBanonEUbeef&sheepTradeBarrierApproximateTradeImpact(inmillion$)UStechnical