國際貿(mào)易外文翻譯-美國歐洲農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘

PAGEPAGE36中文3680字外文文獻(xiàn)譯文資料來源：Silvia Weyerbrock.Technical Trade Barriers in US/EuropeAgriculturalTrad[D]NewarUniversityofDelaware200．作者：SilviaWeyerbrock美國/歐洲農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘摘要技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘嚴(yán)重影響了美國/歐洲的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易。一項(xiàng)1996年美國農(nóng)5789955易。本文為個(gè)案研究提供了一個(gè)背景，并對技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘的未來作用下了定論。由于貿(mào)易規(guī)則的變更，更高的食品安全和食品質(zhì)量的需求以及歐盟的東歐國家，我們希望美國/歐洲的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘能夠在將來得到發(fā)展。什么是技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘？美國/性貿(mào)易壁壘沒有統(tǒng)一的定義。研究人員建議把定義建立在意圖，經(jīng)濟(jì)影響，工具使用的基礎(chǔ)之上。Thornsbury（1997年DeRemer（1997年）國內(nèi)市場上銷售的法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn),并且這些法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的表面目的是為了糾正與羅伯茨和DeRemer，1997）的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)措施。除了技術(shù)法規(guī)，羅伯茨和DeRemer強(qiáng)調(diào)，表明符合外國法規(guī)可能成為一個(gè)技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘有別于其他貿(mào)易壁壘的原因在于它可以產(chǎn)生經(jīng)濟(jì)效率。而的規(guī)則是有難度的（DeReme，1997。為了遏制近年來盛行的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘，關(guān)貿(mào)總協(xié)定的成員國組織了關(guān)于動植物衛(wèi)生檢疫措施協(xié)議（SPS）和技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議（TBT）的談判，作為烏拉圭回合談判的一部分（19941994b大大加強(qiáng)了對技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘使用的國際規(guī)則。所有世貿(mào)組織的成員國都受到了這些協(xié)議的制約。該協(xié)議規(guī)定，動植物衛(wèi)生檢疫措施和技術(shù)措施，不應(yīng)成為變相的貿(mào)易壁壘或以武斷或歧視性的方式被使用。他們應(yīng)該只被適用于必要的（年b）為基礎(chǔ)。各國被鼓勵(lì)使用由國際科學(xué)組織制定的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，諸如食品規(guī)范委員會，國際獸疫局OI）和國際植物保護(hù)公約IPP的理由是科學(xué)或一個(gè)非歧視性的更低水平的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的話，他們可能保持比國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)更為嚴(yán)格的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在協(xié)調(diào)統(tǒng)一的情況下，世貿(mào)組織的成員國被鼓勵(lì)運(yùn)用等效和談判的原則，例如，獸醫(yī)等效協(xié)議。等效意味著相同的健康保障水平可以由（世界貿(mào)易組織，1994b）決定。美國/歐洲的貿(mào)易壁壘概覽在一項(xiàng)美國科學(xué)家聯(lián)合會，美國農(nóng)業(yè)部監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)和美國貿(mào)易組織的調(diào)查中，DeRemer（1997年）1996月美國農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口的貿(mào)易壁壘。這些壁壘包括市場準(zhǔn)入壁壘，市場拓展壁壘和市場保留壁壘。市場準(zhǔn)入壁壘，包括進(jìn)口禁令；市場擴(kuò)大壁壘有限，但并不排除美國的出口；市場保留壁壘是目前正在考慮的措施，一旦獲得通過則很可能DeRemer特別是美國的影響，也不包括美國的壁壘對歐盟進(jìn)口的影響。該調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)了歐洲的57個(gè)貿(mào)易壁壘并對美國的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口產(chǎn)生了估計(jì)有價(jià)值89955萬美元的貿(mào)易影響。其中的6個(gè)貿(mào)易壁壘產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)估計(jì)有超過5000萬美元/人的個(gè)人貿(mào)易影響（2。這些壁壘共計(jì)占所有估計(jì)貿(mào)易影響61.812DeRemer（1997）23條美國/500萬的貿(mào)易影響?？紤]到產(chǎn)品包含貿(mào)易壁壘，調(diào)查顯示，許多壁壘影響美國出口至歐洲的動物產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易（247730萬美元，占所有歐洲壁壘估計(jì)貿(mào)易影響的53％。相比之下，在世界上的所有其10730萬美元。此外，出口加工食品1（DeReme1997美國農(nóng)業(yè)部調(diào)查報(bào)告是關(guān)于技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘影響美國農(nóng)產(chǎn)品出口的最全面的調(diào)查。它通過詳細(xì)說明這些壁壘是如何遍布的來為技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘找到光明。但是，其結(jié)果應(yīng)被仔細(xì)解釋為幾個(gè)原因：這項(xiàng)調(diào)查涵蓋市場保留壁壘（即正在審議的壁壘確定的。最后，出于保密的原因，羅伯茨和DeRemer（1997）體的問題。由于缺乏信息，因此很難評估各種估計(jì)的可靠性。21996年美國農(nóng)業(yè)部調(diào)查報(bào)告中發(fā)現(xiàn)的歐洲的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易貿(mào)易壁壘數(shù)量(貿(mào)易壁壘數(shù)量(百萬美元)估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響(ETI)ETI大于5000萬美元6555.81ETI在5萬美元和4999萬美元之間23307.73ETI小于5萬美元3836.01共計(jì)57899.55按估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響：續(xù)表按估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響：按產(chǎn)品種類*：所以產(chǎn)品00.00水果和蔬菜00.00谷類和飼料谷類7108.81動物產(chǎn)品牛肉7157.80豬肉568.50牛肉和豬肉150.00所有動物產(chǎn)品2201.00其他產(chǎn)品待加工產(chǎn)品13112.91種子225.00林木類476.00魚類21.00共計(jì)*43*801.12*注意事項(xiàng)：只有當(dāng)（1）提供超過10個(gè)貿(mào)易壁壘，或者（2）估計(jì)的貿(mào)易影響超過5000萬美元時(shí)，產(chǎn)品種類的信息可供提供。Thornsbury等人（1997年；羅伯茨和DeRemer（1997年。具體措施本節(jié)會提出近期具體的美國/歐洲農(nóng)業(yè)貿(mào)易的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘。除了研究歐洲壁壘對美國進(jìn)口的影響，我們也會探討美國壁壘對歐洲進(jìn)口的影響。我們明確普遍存在這種壁壘的領(lǐng)域，并試圖概略估計(jì)它們的貿(mào)易影響。我們的調(diào)查沒有提供關(guān)于美國/歐洲貿(mào)易的技術(shù)壁壘的系統(tǒng)證據(jù)。這需要一個(gè)詳細(xì)的評估，它關(guān)于許多標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和法規(guī)以及一個(gè)關(guān)于許多國家出口的全面的格拉歐洲（報(bào)刊名于美國貿(mào)易和投資的壁壘的歐盟委員會報(bào)告。我們省略了這些出版物沒有提及的貿(mào)易壁壘，可能有許多技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘與合格評定和執(zhí)行方面相關(guān)。（1998年美國在論文上引發(fā)的歐盟荷爾蒙爭端以外，關(guān)于美國/歐洲的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘對價(jià)格和社會福利的影響的定量的經(jīng)濟(jì)研究仍處于莫衷一是的狀態(tài)。有時(shí)，新聞和其他來源確定存在威脅或存在壁壘的貿(mào)表3節(jié)選的美國/歐洲技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘的近似的貿(mào)易影響貿(mào)易壁壘貿(mào)易壁壘近似的貿(mào)易影響（百萬美元)美國的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘美國的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘針對歐盟牛肉和羊肉的壁壘針對各種農(nóng)藥的壁壘(德萊尼修正案)(威脅)歐盟出口酒到美國(1995年)歐盟出口橄欖油到美國(1994/95年)a針對西班牙豬肉制品的壁壘21,01570,000西班牙出口紅肉到美國(1995年)b歐盟的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘0.4針對美國標(biāo)準(zhǔn)參考樣品的歐盟壁壘14,000(最大威脅但是有可能有許多例外)針對美國激素處理牛肉的歐盟壁壘針對美國新鮮肉類和禽類的歐盟壁壘(威脅)針對美國禽類的歐盟壁壘10010054針對轉(zhuǎn)基因生物的歐盟壁壘美國谷物出口到歐盟(1995年針對波蘭乳制品的歐盟壁壘433EC60東歐的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘針對美國禽肉的東歐可能壁壘c針對美國激素處理牛肉的保加利亞壁壘1602.5俄羅斯的技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘針對美國禽肉的俄羅斯壁壘(威脅但并沒有被實(shí)施)840在1994到1995的出口都受到了貿(mào)易壁壘的影響。數(shù)據(jù)適用于所有紅肉但豬肉除外。199716000萬美元。DeRemer6的重大現(xiàn)實(shí)問題。其他問題可能會被同時(shí)解決。外文文獻(xiàn)原文MaterialSource:SilviaWeyerbrock.TechnicalTradeBarriersinUS/EuropeAgriculturalTrade[D].Newark：UniversityofDelaware，2000．Author:SilviaWeyerbrockTechnicalTradeBarriersinUS/EuropeAgriculturalTradeAbstractTechnicalbarriersstronglyaffectUS/Europeanagriculturalandfoodtrade.A1996USDAsurveyidentifies57questionableEuropeanregulationsaffectingUSagriculturalexportswithanestimatedtradeimpactof$899.55million.ThisarticleidentifiesEuropeanandUStechnicalregulationsthatimpedebilateraltrade.Thearticleprovidesabackgroundforcasestudiesanddrawsconclusionsregardingthefutureroleoftechnicalbarriers.WeexpectthattechnicalbarriersinUS/Europewillproliferateinthefuturebecauseofchangesin traderules,higherdemandforfoodsafetyandvariousfoodqualityattributes,andEUmembershipofEasternEuropeancountries.WhatisaTechnicalBarriertoTrade?US/Europeagriculturaltradeisstronglyaffectedbytechnicalbarrierstotrade.Asmentionedabovethereisnocommonlyagreedupondefinitionoftechnicalbarrierstotrade.Researchershaveproposeddefinitionsbasedonintent,economicimpact,andinstrumentsused.InthissurveywefollowadefinitionproposedbyThornsburyetal.(1997)andRobertsandDeRemer(1997).Theydefinetechnicalbarriersas“internationallydivergentregulationsandstandardsgoverningthesaleofproductsinnationalmarkets which have as their prima facie objective the correction of inefficiencies stemming from externalities associated with the distribution,andconsumptionoftheseproducts.”Thisdefinitionincludesstandardsofidentity,measure,andquality,andSPS,globalcommons,andpackagingmeasures.It,however,excludesincentivemeasuressuchassubsidiesandtaxes(Roberts&DeRemer,1997).Inadditiontothetechnicalregulations,RobertsandDeRemerstressthatdemonstratingconformitytoaforeignregulationcanbeatechnicalbarrier.Technicaltradebarriersdifferfrommanyothertradebarriersbecausetheycanbeeconomicallyefficient.Moreover,SPSregulationsarenot“mostfavorednation,”i.e.,differenttradingpartnersmayneedtocomplywithdifferentconditionsforgainingaccessto,animportingcountry’smarket.Consequently,designingeffectiverulesforsuchmeasuresisdifficult(Roberts&DeRemer,1997).Tostemtheproliferationoftechnicalbarriersinrecentyears,GATTmembersnegotiatedAgreementsonSanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures(SPS)andTechnicalBarrierstoTrade(TBT)aspartoftheUruguayRoundAgreement(WorldTradeOrganization, 1994a, 1994b). These agreements considerably strengtheninternationalrulesontheuseoftechnicalbarriers.AllWTOmembersarenowsubjectto these agreements. Theagreements specifythat SPS andtechnicalmeasuresshouldnotbeusedasdisguisedtradebarriersorinanarbitraryordiscriminatorymanner.Theyshouldonlybeappliedtotheextentnecessaryandmustbebasedonscientificprinciplesandonriskassessment(WorldTradeOrganization, 1994a, 1994b). Countries are encouraged to use internationalstandardsdevelopedbyinternationalscientificorganizationssuchastheCodexAlimentariusCommission,theInternationalOfficeofEpizootics(OIE),andtheInternationalPlantProtectionConvention(IPPC).Countries,however,maymaintainstandardsthatarestricterthaninternationalstandards,iftheyarejustifiedbyscienceorbyanondiscriminatorylowerlevelofrisk.Intheabsenceofharmonization,WTOmembersareencouragedtoapplytheprincipleofequivalencyandnegotiate,forexample,veterinaryequivalenceagreements.Equivalencyimpliesthatthesamelevelofhealthprotectioncanbeachievedbydifferentmethods(WorldTradeOrganization,1994b).Regulationsandstandardsshouldbeconsideredequivalentifonecountrycanshowthatitsmeasures—albeitdifferent—meettheothercountry’slegitimateobjectives.Equivalenceagreementsallowproductstobetradedwithminimalcustomschecks.Ifeachsiderecognizestheotherparty’splantinspectionprocedures,visitsofinspectorstoforeignproductionandprocessingfacilitiesbecomeunnecessary.AnothernovelfeatureoftheSPSagreement,theprincipleofregionalization,suggeststhatdiseaseorpest-freestatusshouldbeconsideredontheregionalratherthanthecountrylevel.Ifacountrycandemonstratethatanareaofitscountryis,andislikelytoremain,diseaseorpest-freethanimportingcountriesshouldnotplacerestrictionsongoodsfromthisarea.Finally,countriescannoteasilyrejectapaneldecisionbasedonthenewlyestablisheddisputesettlementmechanismanylonger.TechnicalRegulationsinUS/EuropeTradeOverviewInasurveyofFASattaches,USDAregulatoryagencies,andUStradeorganizations,RobertsandDeRemer(1997)identifyquestionableregulationsintheEU,EasternEurope,andtheFSUthataffectedUSagriculturalexportsinJune1996.Suchbarriersincludemarketaccess,marketexpansion,andmarketretentionbarriers.Marketaccessbarriersincludeimportbans;marketexpansionbarrierslimitbutdonot preclude US exports; and market retention barriers are measures underconsideration,whichmayadverselyaffectUSexports,ifenacted.RobertsandDeRemeraskedtheattachesandtradeorganizationstoestimatethetradeimpactofsuchbarriersintermsofthevalueofcurrentUSexportrevenuethatisthreatenedandcouldbepotentiallylost.PleasenotethatthesurveyonlycoversquestionablemeasuresaffectingUSexportstocountriescoveredbyoverseasFASoffices.ItdoesneithercoverquestionableEuropeanmeasuresaffectingcountriesotherthantheUSnorUSmeasuresaffectingEuropeanimports.Thesurveyfinds57questionablemeasuresinEuropewithanestimatedtradeimpactonUSagriculturalandfoodexportsof$899.55million.Sixofthesequestionablemeasureshaveanestimatedindividualtradeimpactofmorethan$50millioneach(Table2).Togetherthesebarriersaccountfor61.8%ofthetotalestimatedtradeimpact.Surveyrespondentsidentifiedonly12othermeasuresworldwide with such a largeimpact. Roberts and DeRemer (1997) find regulationsinUS/Europetradewithanestimatedtradeimpactofmorethanmillion.Consideringtheproductcoverageofquestionablemeasures,thesurveyshowsthatmanybarriersaffectingUSexportstoEuropeaffecttradeinanimalproducts(Table2).Theestimatedtradeimpact ofallbarriersonanimal productsismillionandaccountsfor53%ofestimatedtotaltradeimpactsofallEuropeanbarriers.Bycomparison,inallothercountriesoftheworldonly$107.3millionexportsofanimalproductsaresubjectedtoquestionablebarriers.Moreover,exportsofprocessedfoodsandgrainsexceeding$100millionrespectivelyareaffectedbyquestionablebarriers(Roberts&DeRemer,1997).TheUSDAsurveyisthefirstcomprehensivesurveyoftechnicaltradebarriersaffectingUSagriculturalexports.IthasshedthelightonTBTsbydetailinghowpervasivesuchbarriersare.However,itsresultsshouldbeinterpretedcarefullyforseveralreasons.Theexpertsconsultedarelikelytobebiased:thegoalofFASattachesandtradeorganizationsistopromoteUSagriculturalexports.TheregulatoryagenciesusedtovettheirestimatesarelikelytotaketheUSstanceonissuessuchasthescientificjustificationandconformityofvariousmeasureswiththenewtradeagreements.SomeexpertsmayhavebeenawarethattheUSmayconsiderinitiatingdisputesettlementproceduresbasedontheirreports.Thesurveycoversmarketretentionbarriers(i.e.,barriersunderconsideration)whoseadoptionandimplementationareuncertain.Finally,forconfidentialityreasons,RobertsandDeRemer(1997)couldnotidentifyspecificissues.Lackingthisinformation,itisdifficulttoassessreliabilityofvariousestimates.NumberofBarriers(millionNumberofBarriers(million$)EstimatedTradeImpact(ETI)Byestimatedtradeimpact:Byproductcategory*:AnimalproductsETIlargerthan$50million6555.81ETIbetween$5millionand$49.99million23307.73ETIsmallerthan$5million3836.01Total57899.55Allproducts00.00Fruitsandvegetables00.00GrainsandfeedGrains7108.81ContinuedBeef7157.80Pork568.50Beefandpork150.00Allanimalproducts2201.00OtherproductsFurtherprocessedproducts13112.91Seeds225.00Forestry476.00Fish21.00Total*43*801.12*Note:Informationforproductcategoriesonlygivenif(1)morethan10barriersapply,or(2)iftheETIexceeds$50million.Source:Thornsburyetal.(1997);RobertsandDeRemer(1997).SpecificMeasuresThis section identifies recent and current specific technical barriers US/Europeagriculturaltrade.InadditiontostudyingEuropeanbarriersonUSimports,wealsoexploreUS barriersonEuropeanimports.Weidentifysectorsinwhichsuchbarriersareprevalentandattempttoapproximatetheirtradeimpact.OursurveydoesnotprovidesystematicevidenceontechnicalbarriersinUS/Europetrade.Thisrequiresadetailedassessmentofmanystandardsandregulationsandacomprehensivesurveyofexportersinmanycountries.Instead,ourstudyisbasedoninformationfoundinresearchpapers,newspapers,andindustryandagencypublicationssuchasAgra-Europe,documentsoftheUSForeignAgriculturalService,andaEuropeanCommissionReportonUSBarrierstoTradeandInvestment.Weomitquestionablemeasuresnotmentionedinsuchpublicationsand,possibly,manyTBTsrelatedtoconformityassessmentandenforcement.Inthisarticle,weattempttoapproximatethetradeimpactofvariousTBTs.Unfortunately,withtheexceptionofPeterson,Paggi,andHenry’spaper(1998)otheUS/EUhormonedispute,quantitativeeconomicstudiesonthepriceandwelfareeffectsofTBTsinUS/Europetradeareunavailableatthispoint.Occasionally,newsandothersourcesidentifythetradeimpactofthreatenedorexistingbarriers.Ifnodataareavailable,weapproximatethemaximumpossibleimpactof,forexample,animportban,bygivinginformationonthetradevolumebeforetheban.Note,however,thatthisestimateislikelytobeanoverstatement.Importbansarefrequently linked to specific production and processing techniques. If a USprocessingfirmfollowsEUguidelines,itmaystillbeabletodobusinesswiththeEU.TradeBarrierApproximateTradeImpact(inmillion$)UStechnicalbarriersBanonEUbeef&sheepTradeBarrierApproximateTradeImpact(inmillion$)UStechnical