簡明英語語言學教程

簡明英語語言學教程第1頁/共67頁Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.4.1Whatissyntax?thecompositionofsentences:word-levelcategories&phrasecategories;rulesgoverningtheorganizationofdifferentcategoriesintolargerstructuralunits:phrasestructurerule&sentenceruleSyntax:(Greek)arrangement第2頁/共67頁Discussion:Whatcanyoufillinthecontext“The________issmiling.”?4.2Categories第3頁/共67頁Discussion:Ishereallythatkind?Theycanfishhere.4.2CategoriesDiscussthepossiblemeaningsofthefollowingsentences.Whatcausesthedifferentinterpretationsofeachofthesesentences?第4頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesCategory:agroupoflinguisticitems(asentence,anounphrase,averb)whichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguage.4.2CategoriesSyntacticcategory:aword(calledaword/lexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledaphrasecategory)thatperformsaparticularfunctioninasentence.1)Definition第5頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesMajorlexicalcategory:(heads)Noun,Verb,Adjective,Preposition4.2Categories2)TypesMinorlexicalcategory:Determiner,Degreewords,Qualifier,Auxiliary,Conjunction第6頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesMeaning:wordcategoriesbearrelationshipwithmeaningn.:entities(humanbeings,objects)v.:action,sensations,statesadj.:attributeofentitiesadv.:thepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstates4.2Categories3)Threecriteriaareusedtodetermineaword’scategory.第7頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesInflection:wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.n.:-sv.:-ed,-ingadj.:-er,-est

4.2Categories3)Threecriteriaareusedtodetermineaword’scategory.第8頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesdistribution:whattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.n.:determinerv.:auxiliaryadj.:degreeword

4.2Categories3)Threecriteriaareusedtodetermineaword’scategory.第9頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesTheoldladysuddenlyleft.

4.2CategoriesExercise:Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.DetANQualV

Thecarstoppedattheendoftheroad.

DetNVPDetNPDetN

第10頁/共67頁1.Word-levelcategoriesThesnowmighthaveblockedtheroad.

4.2CategoriesExercise:Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.DetAAuxAuxVDetN

Heneverappearsquitemature.

NQualVDegA

第11頁/共67頁2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2CategoriesDiscussion:Whichsentenceisnotconsideredgrammatical?a.Thestudentlikedthelinguisticslecture.b.Thelinguisticslecturelikedthestudent.c.Likedthestudentthelinguisticslecture.a.Johnhituponanidea.b.AnideahituponJohn.c.AnhitJohnuponidea.第12頁/共67頁2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2Categoriesphrases:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.Phrasecategoryisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP),prepositionalphrase(PP)第13頁/共67頁2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2CategoriesDiscusswithyourdeskmatewhetherthefollowingphraseshavethesamestructuralmechanism.NP:thestudentwholikeslinguisticsAP:verycuriousoftheanswerVP:quitelikePekingOperaPP:rightintheparkDiscussion:第14頁/共67頁2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures4.2Categorieshead:thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedspecifiers:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadscomplements:thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrases:oneword/morethanoneword第15頁/共67頁grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase4.3PhrasestructureruleNP→(Det)N(PP)…VP→(Qual)V(NP)…AP→(Deg)A(PP)…PP→(Deg)P(NP)…第16頁/共67頁1.XPrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleNP→(Det)N(PP)…VP→(Qual)V(NP)…AP→(Deg)A(PP)…PP→(Deg)P(NP)…XP→(specifier)X(complement)↓Arethereanystructuralsimilaritiesamongtheserules?head第17頁/共67頁Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.4.3Phrasestructurerule1)fullofpeopleAPAPNfullofpeople第18頁/共67頁2)astoryaboutasentimentalgirlNPaDetNPPPstoryaNPNPPDetANaboutsentimentalgirl第19頁/共67頁3)oftenreaddetectivestoriesVPQualNPoftenNAdetectiveVreadstories第20頁/共67頁4)theargumentagainsttheproposals5)movetowardsthewindowMoreExercises:第21頁/共67頁2.Coordinationrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleCoordinatestructures:thephrasesformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionlikeand,

or,

andbut.第22頁/共67頁2.Coordinationrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleDiscussion:Canyoulengthenthefollowingsentencesbyusingcoordinatestructures?John,_________________likedthebook.Hewashedhisface,________.第23頁/共67頁2.Coordinationrule:propertiesofcoordinationNolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategories;Acategoryatanylevel(ahead/anXP);Thesametypeofcoordinatedcategories;Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephrase=thecategorytypeoftheconjoinedelements第24頁/共67頁2.Coordinationrule:4.3PhrasestructureruleX→X*ConX↓acategoryatanystructurallevel(XorXP)第25頁/共67頁1.Specifiers4.4Phraseelements1)Definition:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsSemantically,makemoreprecisethemeaningoftheheadSyntactically,markaphraseboundary第26頁/共67頁1.Specifiers4.4Phraseelements2)Syntacticcategory:dependonthecategoryoftheheadHeads:N→Specifiers:Dettheboy,hishouseHeads:V→Specifiers:Qualnevergiveup,oftenwatchHeads:A/P→Specifiers:Degverygood,morebeautiful,rightin第27頁/共67頁2.Complements4.4Phraseelementsphrasesthatprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningoftheheade.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;

angryaboutthenews;

intheroom;

closethewindow.

第28頁/共67頁2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsSubcategorization:theinformationaboutaword’scomplement,whichisincludedinthehead(whatkindofcomplementisneeded,weshouldseeitshead)Starsdisappeared.(nocomplement)Shecutherself.(onecomplement)Hegavemetheletter.(twocomplements)第29頁/共67頁2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsTheXPRule(revised)XP→(Specifier)X(Complement*)第30頁/共67頁2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsComplementizers(Cs):wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementComplementclause(CC):thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizerMissHerbertbelieves

thatshewillwin.

↓

↓↓matrixclauseCs+CC=CP第31頁/共67頁2.Complements4.4PhraseelementsIamsure

thatshewillcome.Heheldthebelief

thathewouldfindajob.Wetalkedabouthowwespendtheholiday.第32頁/共67頁3.Modifiers4.4PhraseelementstheelementsthatspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesoftheheadsModifiersofNs:APatallslendergirlModifiersofVs:AdvP&PPreadcarefully,carefullyread,landwithcaution第33頁/共67頁3.Modifiers4.4PhraseelementsTheExpandedXPrule:XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)第34頁/共67頁4.5Sentences(TheSRule)S→NPVPInflp(=S)NPInflVPSpecifierHeadComplement第35頁/共67頁InflrealizedbyatenselabelInflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNPstNPVDetNAboyfoundthebook4.5Sentences(TheSRule)第36頁/共67頁InflpositionrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNwillNPVDetNTheteacherexplaintheterm4.5Sentences(TheSRule)第37頁/共67頁e.g.Anunusualeventoccurredbeforethemeeting.Inflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNPstPPVPNPAneventoccurredbeforetheADetNmeetingunusual第38頁/共67頁Exercise:Aquaintoldhouseappearedonthegrassyhill.Inflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNPPstPPVPNPADetNANA第39頁/共67頁4.6.1Auxiliarymovement4.6TransformationsHowaretheyes-noquestionstructuresbuilt?TheauxiliaryoccupiesthenormalpositioninInfl(head).InversionmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontotheleftofthesubject.Twosteps:第40頁/共67頁MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Inversion:MoveInfltoC.SNPInflVPDetNwillVthetrainarriveCPC4.6.1Auxiliarymovement第41頁/共67頁4.6.1AuxiliarymovementSNPInflVPDetNeVthetrainarriveCPInflWillCtrace,headmovement第42頁/共67頁4.6.2DoinsertionSNPInflVPNNonpstVbirdsflyCPCHowdoweformayes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInfl?Birdsfly.第43頁/共67頁4.6.2DoinsertionSNPInflVPNdoVbirdsflyCPCInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.第44頁/共67頁4.6.2DoinsertionSNPInflVPNeVbirdsflyCPInflDoCInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.第45頁/共67頁4.6.3Deepstructureandsurfacestructure1.Deepstructure:(D-structure)alevelofsyntacticstructureformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.2.Surfacestructure:(S-structure)alevelofsyntacticstructure,thefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations.第46頁/共67頁DeepstructureSNPInflVPDetNVthetrainarrivewillWillthetrainarrive?第47頁/共67頁SurfacestructureSNPInflVPDetNeVthetrainarriveCPInflWillCWillthetrainarrive?第48頁/共67頁SurfacestructureWillthetrainarrive?_______thetrainarrive?Will第49頁/共67頁SyntacticMechanismsInvolvedinTransformational-GenerativeGrammarDEEPSTRUCTURE↓Transformations↓SURFACESTRUCTURESubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements←→thephrasalstructures→themovementofcategoriesTheXPRule↓第50頁/共67頁Whentransformationsarenotnecessary,therepresentationsofthetwolevelsofstructurearethesame.Inflp(=S)NPInflVPDetNwillNPVDetNTheteacherexplaintheterm第51頁/共67頁4.6.4WhMovementWhatwillyoutalkabout?Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?DeepStructuresyouwilltalkaboutwhatyoucanspeakwhatlanguages第52頁/共67頁Whatwillyoutalkabout?SNPInflVPNtalkVYouwhatCPwillVPNPPaboutCDeepStructure第53頁/共67頁SurfaceStructureSNPInflVPNtalkVYoueCPeVPNPPaboutNPNWhatwillCWhMovementMoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.第54頁/共67頁Whowonthegame?SNPInflVPNwonWhogameCPVNPthePstDetNCDeepStructure第55頁/共67頁Whowonthegame?SNPInflVPNwongameCPVNPthePstNPWhoNCeSurfaceStructureDet第56頁/共67頁Whatdidyoueatforlunch?SNPInflVPeatforCPVNPwhatdidNNPPPlunchCyouDeepStructureN第57頁/共67頁Whatdidyoueatforlunch?SNPInflVPeatforCPVNPedidNNPPPlunchNPNwhateInflCyouSurfaceStructureN第58頁/共67頁Shehasfinallyfoundthemanwhomsheloves.DeepS