5G及其后：制定監(jiān)管對策（英）

5G

AND

BEYOND:FORMULATINGAREGULATORYRESPONSEReportPreparedbyROHIT

PRASADV.

SRIDHARJULY

20235Gand

Beyond:FormulatingaRegulatoryResponseFinalReportRohit

Prasad,MDI

GurgaonV.

Sridhar,IIITBangalore3

July

20231Glossary1Executive

Summary4Chapter1.Transformedtechnological

landscape

of

digitalservices

6Abstract61.1.Themodularizationof

theconnectivity

valuechain

61.1.1

TechnologyModularity

and

Open

Networks

61.1.2.Open

Radio

AccessNetworks81.2.CaptiveNon-Public

Networks:

A

GameChanger91.2.1.NetworkSlicing

101.3.Neutral

Hosts121.4.Conclusions

13References13Chapter2.The

Integrated

Sphereof

Coopetition

of

DigitalServicesand

DiagonalEquity...15Abstract152.1.Introduction

152.2.Complementarity

of

OTT

Services152.3.Hybridizationof

NetworkProvision162.4.Substitutability

of

Services162.5.

Walled

Gardens182.6.DiagonalEquity:ANew

Regulatory

Approach

182.6.1.Vertical,

Horizontal,

and

Diagonal

Equity192.7.FunctionalEquivalence

202.8.NetNeutrality202.9.InterconnectionandData

Portability

212.10.

UniversalService222.11.Moderation

of

Regulatory

Levies222.12.

Conclusions

23References23Chapter

3.

Licensing:

From

the

communications

convergence

bill

tofunctional

separation

andinfrastructure

integration25Abstract253.1.Background

and

Existing

LicenseStructure

253.2.Theheightenedneed

forconvergenceand

functional

separation

273.2.1.Functionalseparation273.2.2.Convergence

in

theinfrastructure

layer283.2.3.OTTBroadcastingand

Video

Services

3023.3.A

new

licensingregime313.4.MigrationPlan333.5.Revenue

Estimates343.6.Conclusions

35References36Chapter4.SpectrumRegulation

39Abstract394.1.Introduction

394.2.Methodofspectrumallocationin

India404.3.History

of

SpectrumPricesin

India424.4.Analysisof

variables

thataffect

SpectrumPrice434.5.Role

of

unlicensed

spectrum:

Wi-Fi

asComplement

orSubstitute

444.5.1.

Wi-Fi

Networks444.5.2.

Wi-Fi

6

andBeyond

464.5.3.The

uniquecase

of

60

GHz

band474.5.4.The

co-existence

of

5GNR-U

and

IEEE

802.11

networks474.6.Coexistencein

theC-Band484.6.1.The

CBRSBand

inthe

US

and

SAA484.7.SpectrumforSatelliteNetworks494.8.New

approachestoeffective

spectrummanagement514.8.1.Light

licensing

andflexible

spectrumregulation514.8.2.Flexible

Spectrum

Management:

fromstatic

to

dynamicapproaches524.8.3.Dynamic

SpectrumSharing544.9.Conclusions

54References55Chapter5.FromNet

NeutralitytoDigitalNeutrality58Abstract585.1.Introduction:

What

is

Net

Neutrality?585.2.NetNeutrality

in

India

605.3.New

Value

Chain615.3.Changing

Commercial

andTechnicalRealities635.3.1.Increasing

amountsof

data,

andincreasing

varietiesof

applications

635.3.2.Increasedpower

ofCAPs645.4.PotentialSynergiesfromCloserCollaboration

Between

CAPsand

TISPs

655.4.1.Networkslicing

and

its

effectsonNet

Neutrality665.5.NetNeutrality

Policy

Directivesin

a

5G

World6735.6.DigitalNeutrality685.7.Conclusions

68References69Chapter6.InterconnectionandData

Portability

Regulation72Abstract726.1.Taxonomy

of

Interconnection

charges726.2.TerminationCharges736.3.InterconnectCongestion756.4.Interconnectionchargesfor

IPbased

calls766.4.1.Internettelephony

callsterminatingonCarrierNetwork766.4.2.InternationalInternet

telephony

calls

terminating

onlocalCarrierNetwork

776.4.3.Recent

regulationon

interconnection

of

Internet

Telephony

796.5.InterconnectionbetweenOTTCommunication

Apps

796.5.1.Evolving

communicationtechnologiesfor

Internetworking806.6.AccesstoEmergency

Services816.7.Number

andDataPortability

826.7.1.Number

portability826.7.2.Data

portability

826.8.Conclusions

83References84Chapter7.UniversalService

Policy877.1.Introduction

877.2.UniversalServicesLevy

877.3.Usesof

the

Universal

Service

Levy877.4.TheoreticalIssues:

What

to

Build897.4.1.Good

4G:

AConsumption

Norm907.4.2.

Fixed

line

infrastructure

for

5G

in

urban

and

semi-urban

areas:

A

SystemRequirement917.5.TheoreticalIssues:

WhotoCharge917.6.TheTwin

EnginesofDigitalIndia:

Infrastructure

supply

&

Demand927.7.Conclusion

93References93Chapter8.Summary

of

Recommendations958.1.Technologies958.2.IntegratedSphere

ofCompetition

958.3.New

Licensing

Framework

9548.4.SpectrumManagement

978.5.NetNeutrality

toDigitalNeutrality

988.6.InterconnectionandData

Portability

Regulation988.7.UniversalService99Appendix-I:Stakeholder

Analysis100I-1.

Telecom

and

InternetValueChain100I-2.

ExtantRegulationof

the

Telecom

andInternet

Sectors101I-2.1.Scope

andExtentof

Regulation102I-2-2.

Regulatory

Institutions103I-2.3.Data

Protectionand

Privacy103I-3.

Antitrust

andCompetition104I-3.1.SubstitutableorComplementary

Services104I-3.2.NetNeutrality

Debate

106I-3-3.

Re-sizingtheLSAs

toimprove

competition

107I-4.

Spectrum

Management

andRegulation

107I-4-1.

SpectrumAllocation107I-4-2.

Captive

Non-PublicNetworks(CNPNs)108I-4-3.

Coexistenceof

LicensedandUnlicensedNetworks111I-4-4.

GlobalSpectrumManagement113I-5.

Interconnection

and

Interoperability114I-6.

Universal

Service114I-7.

Concluding

Remarks115Appendix-II:InternationalBest

Practices

116Appendix-III:

Deploymentof

CNPNs:

InternationalPractices118Appendix-IV.SpectrumPrices

andAvailable

Spectrum

in

India120Appendix-V.Licensing

Guidelinesfor6

GHz

in

different

countries1255List

of

TablesTable

2-1.Complementarity

OTT

services

16Table

2-2.Substitutability

of

MNOand

OTTservices17Table

3-1.Functional

SeparationandConvergence

in

Infrastructure28Table

3-2.Detailsof

the

LicensingFramework32Table

3-3.Regulatory

Feesas

pertheCurrent

Regime34Table

3-4.Regulatory

Feesas

pertheProposed

Regime

34Table

4-1.Summary

Statisticsof

SpectrumAuctionsheld

inIndia43Table

4-2.Analysisof

the

determinantsof

spectrum

pricesin

India

44Table

4-3.Summary

of

Wi-Fi

Technologies45Table

4-4.Examplesof

LightLicensing

Sharing

Approaches52Table

5-1.DimensionsofNet

Neutrality59Table

5-2.Typeof

chargesintheInternet

value

chain62Table

6-1.Revision

of

TerminationChargesby

TRAI

75Table

6-2.Existing

regulationon

Interconnectionand

emergency

services81Table

6-3.ProposedregulationonInterconnectionandemergency

services

84Table

I-1.Summary

of

StakeholderInterviews

100Table

I-2.Telecom

versusOTTCommunicationServices

104Table

I-3.Spectrum

Carve-outsor

not

forCNPNs

108Table

I-4.LicensedversusUnlicensed

Spectrum112Table

III-1.Variation

inReserve

and

Winning

bidpricesof

spectrumin

India120Table

III-2.Variation

inavailable

andallocatedspectrum

in

India

122List

of

FiguresFigure

1-1.

NetworkSlicing

11Figure

3-1.

Existing

License

Structure

26Figure

3-2.

The

Layeredapproach

to

DigitalCommunications

29Figure

4-1.

Taxonomy

ofRadio

Spectrum

40Figure

5-1.

The

Two-SidedPlatformModel

of

TISP58Figure

5-2.

The

Internet

Value

Chain62Figure

5-3.

GlobalIPtrafficdevelopments(fixed

andmobile)63Figure

5-4.Mobiletrafficby

applications64Figure

6-1.

Call

flow

acrossLSA

within

a

country72Figure

6-2.

Call

flow

of

anInternationalcall73Figure

6-3.

Schematic

diagramof

IPdevice<->

PSTN/PLMNdevice

call77Figure

6-4.

Schematic

diagramof

International

InternetTelephony

call

flow

78Figure

7-1.Growth

of

USOF

in

Indiaover

theyears(Fundstatus

in

Rs.Cr.)88Figure

7-2.

Stream

wisedistribution

of

USOF886Glossary3GPP:

The

3rd

Generation

Partnership

Project

(3GPP)

is

a

collaborative

project

between

agroup

of

telecommunications

associations

with

the

initial

goal

of

developing

globallyapplicable

specificationsfor

third(3G)

and

future

generation

mobile

systems.5G:

Fifth

Generation

Network:

Fifth-generation

wireless

(5G)

is

the

latest

iteration

of

cellulartechnology,

engineered

to

greatly

increase

the

speed

and

responsiveness

of

wirelessnetworks.

the

3GPP

standards

committee

started

the

migration

from

4G

LTE

to

nextgeneration

5G

in

3GPP

Release

14

in

2016.

The

New

Radio

(5G

NR)

requirements

for

5Gcommunication

networks

were

defined

in

3GPP

Release

15

that

started

in

2017

andconcluded

in

2018.AGR:

Adjusted

Gross

Revenue—The

gross

revenue

accruing

to

the

telecom

licensees

by

wayof

operationsof

thecellular

mobile

serviceas

per

theirlicense

conditionsASP:

Access

Service

Provider

who

is

licensed/

authorized

to

provide

telecommunicationaccess

servicesincludingwireline

andmobile

services.CAP:

Content

and

Application

Providers

who

provide

content

and

application

to

the

end

userstypically

through

landlineor

mobile

networkservices.CBRS:Citizens

Broadband

Radio

Serviceis

a

mobileserviceoperating

mainlyin

the

U.S.inFederal

Communications

Commission

(FCC)

authorized

band

of

3550-3650

MHz

(3.5GHz

C-Band)

currently

used

for

military

and

satellite

communicationin

shared

use

mode.CCB:

Communications

Convergence

Bill

drafted

in

2020;

however

not

enacted

in

theparliament;

envisioned

“triple

play”

includingthe

convergenceof

voicetelephony,Internetconnectivity

andvideo

services.CDN:

Content

Distribution

Network

is

a

system

of

distributed

servers

(network)

that

deliverpages

and

other

Webcontent

to

a

user,

based

on

the

geographic

locations

of

the

user,the

originof

the

webpage

and

thecontent

delivery

server.CNPN:

Captive

Non

Public

Networks

that

are

deployed

mainly

for

enterprise

use,

either

byMNOs

or

non-MNOs

using

spectrum

that

is

exclusively

allocated

or

otherwise.

The

CNPNsby

definitionshallnotbeconnected

to

thepublicPSTN/PLMN

or

theInternet.DoT:

Department

of

Telecommunications,

unit

of

the

Ministry

of

Communications

of

theGovernment

of

India,

with

a

vision

to

provide

secure,

reliable

affordable

and

high

qualityconverged

telecommunication

services

anytime,

anywhere

for

an

accelerated

inclusivesocio-economicdevelopmenteMBB:

Enhanced

mobile

broadband

(eMBB)

is,

in

simple

terms,

an

extension

ofservices

firstenabled

by

4G

LTE

networks

that

allows

for

a

high

data

rate

across

a

wide

coverage

area.FCC:

The

Federal

Communications

Commission

(FCC)

is

an

independent

agency

of

theUnited

States

federal

government

that

regulates

communications

by

radio,

television,

wire,satellite,andcable

acrossthe

United

States.ISP:

Internet

Service

Provider

who

is

licensed/

authorized

to

provide

access

to

the

publicInternet.ITU:

The

International

Telecommunication

Union

(ITU)

is

an

agency

of

the

United

Nations(UN)

whose

purpose

is

to

coordinate

telecommunication

operations

and

servicesthroughoutthe

world.IoT:The

term

IoT,or

Internetof

Things,refers

to

the

collective

networkofconnecteddevicesand

thetechnology

that

facilitatescommunication

betweendevicesand

thecloud,

as

wellasbetweenthedevicesthemselves.1mMTC:

massive

Machine

Type

Communication,

supported

in

5G,

that

can

connect

more

than1

million

devicespersquare

kilometerand

providesupport

forInternetof

Things,

vehicle-to-vehicle

communication,

Smart

Citieswherein

sensorsand

machines

communicate

witheach

otherina

semi-automated

way.MNO:

Mobile

Network

Operators

who

are

licensed

to

provide

cellular

mobile

communicationservices.MVNO:

Mobile

Virtual

Network

Operator

-

A

licensed

mobile

service

provider

who

normallyleases/

rents

spectrum

and

other

associated

facilities

from

an

MNO

to

provide

mobilecommunications

andInternet

services.NFAP:

National

Frequency

Allocation

Plan

prepared

by

the

Wireless

Planning

andCoordination

Wing

of

the

Department

of

Telecommunications

periodically

to

designatedifferent

spectrum

bandsfordifferent

usagesNFV:

Network

Function

Virtualization:

NFV

is

a

network

architecture

which

aims

to

accelerateservice

deployment

for

network

operators

and

reduce

cost

by

separating

functions

likefirewall

or

encryption

from

dedicated

hardware

and

moving

them

to

virtual

servers,collapsing

variousfunctionsinto

a

physicalserver,whichultimately

reducesoverall

cost.O-RAN:

Open

Radio

Access

Network

is

a

concept

based

on

interoperability

andstandardization

of

RAN

elements

including

a

unified

interconnection

standard

for

white-boxhardware

and

open

source

software

elements

fromdifferent

vendors.OTT:Over

The

Topis

an

Informationand

Communication

Technology

serviceprovidedoverthe

Internet,

untethered

from

the

underling

network.

Examples

include

instant

messaging,voice

over

theInternetprotocol.PLMN:

Public

Land

Mobile

Network

-

The

mobile

telecommunication

network

that

providesvoice/

data

services.PSTN:

Public

Switched

Telephone

Network

-

The

telecommunication

network

typically

withwire-lineaccess,

that

provides

voice/data

services.QoS:

Quality

of

service

(QoS)

is

the

use

of

mechanisms

or

technologies

that

work

on

anetwork

to

control

traffic

and

ensure

the

performance

of

critical

applications

with

limitednetwork

capacity.SDN:

Software

Defined

Network:

SDN

is

a

networking

architecture

which

aims

to

improveoverall

network

performance

and

make

networksagile

andflexible

by

enabling

a

dynamicandprogrammatically

efficient

networkconfiguration.TISP:

Telecom

and

Internet

Service

Provider:

Typically

a

licensed

entity

that

providestraditionaltelephony

and

Internetaccess

service.TRAI:

The

Telecom

Regulatory

Authority

of

India

(TRAI)

is

a

regulatory

body

set

up

by

theGovernment

of

India

under

section

3

of

the

Telecom

Regulatory

Authority

of

India

Act,1997.

It

istheregulatorofthetelecommunicationssector

in

India.UL:

Unified

License

awarded

to

service

providers

with

an

accompanying

authorization

forproviding

services

such

as

access

service,

Internet

service,

Satellite

service,

VirtualNetwork

Operationsservicesandso

on.URLLC:

Ultra

Reliable

Low

Latency

Communication

(URLLC),

support

in

5Gthatguaranteesless

than

1

millisec

latency

to

provide

services

such

as

automated

robotic

surgery,

selfdriving

cars,

real-time

fleet

management

that

require

extremely

reliable

instantcommunicationUSO:

Universal

Service

Obligation

-

The

telecom

policy

that

enables

the

availability

oftelecommunication

services

in

a

non-discriminatorymanner

to

all

citizens

of

the

country.Normally

funded

by

USO

Fund,

collected

through

USO

Levy

(UASL)

collected

from

thetelecomoperators.2VNO:

Virtual

Network

Operator

-

A

licensed

telecom

operator

who

normally

leases/

rentsspectrum

and

other

associated

facilities

to

provide

telecommunications

and

Internetservices.VoIP:

Voice

Over

Internet

Protocol

-

Process

of

sending

voice

traffic

in

the

form

of

packetsover

IP

networks.

VoIP

digitizes

analog

voice,

compresses

it,

packetizes

and

sends

it

tothe

receiver.Wi-Fi:

Wireless

Fidelity

-

Local

area

wireless

networks

based

on

IEEE

802.11

b/g/n

standardsoperatinginthelicense

free

IndustrialMedical

and

Scientific

(ISM)

radio

frequency

bandsof

2.4

GHz

and

5

GHz.Internet

servicesusing

thistechnology

isnormally

provided

by

theISPs.WiGig:WiGig,

alternatively

known

as

60GHz

Wi-Fi,

refers

to

a

set

of

60

GHz

wireless

networkprotocols.

It

includes

the

current

IEEE

802.11ad

standard

and

also

the

upcoming

IEEE802.11ay

standard.

The

WiGig

specification

allowsdevicestocommunicate

withoutwiresat

multi-gigabitspeeds.XMPP:eXtensibleMessagingandPresence

Protocol(XMPP),whichisanopenstandardforinstant

messaging,

presence,

multi-party

chat,

voice

and

video

calls,

collaboration,lightweight

middleware,

content

syndication,

and

generalized

routing

of

eXtensible

MarkupLanguage(XML)data3Executive

Summary5Gnetworksarebeing

rolled

out

across

theworld,

andas

per

the

(Global

System

for

MobileCommunications)

GSM

Association,

198

networks

have

been

deployed

in

79countries.

5G

isestimated

to

account

for

as

many

as

1.2

billion

connections

by

2025,

covering

almost

26percent

of

global

connections

worldwide.

Mobile

Network

Operators

(MNOs)

worldwide,

arelikely

to

invest

over

$600

billion

between

2022

and

2025

for

deploying

5G

networks.

Soonaftertheauction

of

5Gspectrum,

IndianMNOslaunchedtheir5Gservicein

October2022.Benefits

of

5G

networks

and

services

will

accrue

to

industry

by

providing

massive

machinetype

communication

(mMTC)

and

realizing

the

vision

of

Industry4.0.

On

the

consumer

side,5G

users

are

expected

to

provide

a

fillip

to

video/

music

streaming,

consumer

IoT

applicationssuch

as

smart

homes,

gaming

and

other

entertainment

services,

all

enabled

by

enhancedMobile

Broadband

(eMBB).

Other

changes

in

applications

include

deployment

of

Captive

Non-Public

Networks

(CNPNs)

for

enterprise

use.

Along

with

new

use

cases,

new

business

modelsare

also

being

forged

between

network

equipment

manufacturers

(NEMs),

MNOs

and

cloudservice

providers.

Spectrum

management

techniques

are

also

adapting

to

these

changes

withtheintroductionof

tieredspectrumaccess,

spectrumsensing,

etc.

It

isin

thiscontext

thatourreport

provides

a

review

of

various

regulatoryissues

impacting

the

telecom

sector,

includinglicensing,spectrummanagement,

interconnection,

universal

service

and

datagovernance,

torecommend

guidelinesmost

suitedto

this

evolvingindustry

scenario.The

technological

and

business

possibilities

of

5G

technologies

and

beyond,

demand

afundamental

review

of

our

existing

regulatory

paradigms.

The

telecom

regulatory

landscapehas

a

chequered

history,

oscillating

between

a

strict

“command

and

control”

approach

tounconstrained

flexible,

on

different

regulatory

issues.

However,

having

achieved

near

a

billionconnected

to

mobile

networks

and

services,

India,

as

the

second

largest

telecom

market

inthe

world,

next

only

to

China,

has

the

opportunity

to

seed

new

approaches

to

telecomregulations,

breaking

away

fromtheshacklesof

thepast.Given

the

wide-ranging

impact

expected

from

5G,

any

regulatory

formulation

needs

toundertake

wide-ranging

consultation

with

technologists,

telecom

operators,

software

vendors,lawyers,

and

industryleaders.

Towards

this,

we

have

used

a

combination

of

methods

in

thisstudy

including:

(i)

exhaustive

stakeholder

consultation

(see

Appendix-I

for

details

ofstakeholder

responses);

(ii)

survey

of

existing

literature

on

regulations

specific

to

5G

and

(iii)analysis

of

regulations

across

different

countries

to

provide

international

benchmarks

(seeAppendix-II

for

a

summary

of

international

best

practices).

We

have

taken

into

account

thecritical

issues

in

regulation

including:

(i)

Telecom

and

Internet

Value

Chain;

(ii)

ExtantRegulation

and

the

Future

(iii)

Antitrust

and

Competition;

(iv)

Spectrum

Management;

(v):Interconnection

and

interoperability;(vi)

UniversalServiceand(vii)

Net

Neutrality.Our

recommendations

rest

on

two

central

ideas:

first,

the

functional

separation

of

infrastructureandservices;

second,

the

creation

ofa

network

integrator

that

bringstogether

various

entitiesthat

form

a

part

of

the

infrastructure

layer,

and

is

also

the

entity

licensed

to

hold

spectrum.These

two

ideas

flow

from

the

need

to

incentivize

competition

and

promote

innovation

in

theservices

layer;

and

to

facilitate

investment

and

the

growing

modularization

of

the

infrastructurelayer.

These

ideas

have

a

long

tradition

in

the

conversation

on

regulatory

frameworks

in

Indiantelecommunications

starting

from

the

Communications

Convergence

Bill

of

2001.

However,4they

have

eluded

committed

acceptance.

Not

adopting

these

ideas

at

this

stage

will

delayinvestment,

stifle

innovation,

inhibit

the

unbundling

of

the

infrastructure

layer,

promote

industryconcentration,

and

detract

from

the

dream

of

broadband

for

all.

Finally,

to

address

theemerging

landscape

of

co-opetition

between

internet

and

telecommunications

companies,

wealsorecommendanintegrated

approach

forregulation

of

thetwo

industries.

We

espousetheapproach

of

'diagonal

equity'

to

rationalize

the

treatment

of

the

two

industries

while

notignoringtheir

important

differences.It

is

important

to

note

that

our

recommendations

arenot

meantto

be

mandates

but

‘nudges’that

would

be

operationalized

through

tax

and

other

incentives.

A

wide

spectrum

of

industryconfigurations

is

possible

within

our

regulatory

framework

ranging

from

the

current

verticallyintegrated

structures

to

completely

unbundled

formations

and

everything

in

between.

Thepreciseconfigurationwould

be

dynamically

determinedvia

the

unfetteredchoices

of

industryparticipants.Sinceglobalregulatory

frameworks

arestillatnascent

stages

of

transformation,

Indiahasanopportunity

to

be

a

pathbreaker

in

formulating

an

optimal

regulatory

response

to

theopportunities

presented

by

technologieson

theanvil.

We

should

aimto

go

beyond

ourlegacyas

well

as

current

global

best

practices

to

pave

the

path

to

the

future.

We

hope

this

reportconceived

ofby

theICRIER

andVodafone

Idea

Centre

for

Telecom

(InViCT)

will

contribute

inthis

endeavor.5Chapter1.

TransformedtechnologicallandscapeofdigitalservicesAbstractThis

chapter

elaborates

upon

some

critical

technological

changes

in

the

telecom

and

digitaltechnologies

that

have

significant

competitive

andregulatory

implications:1.

Themodularizationof

theconnectivity

value

chain.2.

The

new

possibilitiesofcaptive

non-public

networks.The

development

of

open

radio

access

networks

under

which

the

telecom

network

isvirtualized

and

modularized

is

explained,

and

the

possibilities

emerging

for

infrastructureprovisioning

is

explained.

The

development

ofa

new

element

of

competition

between

telecomcompanies

and

OTTs

is

outlined

while

their

continuing

cooperation

is

acknowledged.

Thus,an

IntegratedSphere

of

Coopetitionof

DigitalServicesis

coming

into

being.There

are

two

trends

that

we

witness

in

the

evolution

of

5G

and

beyond:

(i)

the

technologyshift

from

hardware

to

software

and

(ii)

the

corresponding

change

in

the

industrylandscape.There

areboth

complementaryand

substitutable

services

being

offered

by

the

Internet

firms(aka

Over

the

Top

(OTT)

communication

providers)

akin

to

those

provided

by

the

MNOs.Value

appropriation,

once

the

forte

of

telcos,

especially

the

Mobile

Network

Operators

(MNOs)is

beingshiftedtoContent

andApplicationProviders

(CAPs),whilethedirectnetwork

effectsexperienced

by

the

MNOs

are

being

surpassed

by

both

the

indirect

and

cross-side

networkeffects

of

the

CAPs.

In

this

chapter,

we

indicate

these

distinct

technological

and

marketchangesthat

necessitate

a

new

regulatory

paradigmin

th