語(yǔ)言教師心理學(xué)初探各章總結(jié)課件

PsychologyforLanguageTeachers:ASocialConstructivistApproachInstructor:CuiLinTime:Fall

of2010PsychologyforLanguageTeacheDescriptionoftheCourseThiscourseaimstoprovidethosemajorsofEnglisheducation(Englishteachers,would-beEnglishteachersincludingpostgraduatestudents)withapsychologicalfoundationwhichwillhelpthembetterunderstandwaysofteachingandlearningandwhichwillprovideafundofknowledgefromwhichtodrawtoinformtheirlaterclassroompractices.Theprimarypurposeofthiscourseistoreflectthecurrenttheoreticaldevelopmentinpedagogyrelatedtoclassroomlearning,especiallythepsychologicalaspectsoflanguagelearningandteaching.DescriptionoftheCourseThisBasedonaquickreviewofsomeoftheprecursorsinpedagogicaltheorization,wewillexaminesocialconstructivismwhosemainassumptionisthatindividualsareactivelyinvolvedrightfrombirthinconstructingpersonalmeaning,thatis,theirownpersonalunderstanding,fromtheirexperiences.Thisisdone,however,throughinteractionswithsignificantothers.Inthisway,thelearnerisbroughtintothecentralfocusinlearningtheoriesaswellasintheclassroom.Currently,socialconstructivismisthesinglemostimportanttheorythatinformsnotonlyEFLbutalsoeducationingeneral.BasedonaquickreviewofsomThiscourseisnotonlyaboutEnglishteaching;rather,itaimsatraisingteachers’(orwould-beteachers’)consciousnessaboutthedifferencesbetweenteachingandeducation,developingtheircriticalthinking,makingthemreflectonthecurrentsituationofEFLinChina,andencouragingthemtoexplorepossibleremediesfortheproblems.ItishopedthattheinsightsprovidedbythiscoursewillshedlightonmanyoftheissuesandquestionsthatwehaveaboutthecurrentqualityeducationinChina.ThiscourseisnotonlyaboutContentsIntroductionChapter1Anintroductiontoeducationalpsychology:behaviorismandcognitivepsychologyChapter2Furtherschoolsofthoughtinpsychology:humanismandsocialinteractionismChapter3Whatdoteachersbringtotheteaching-learningprocess?Chapter4Whatcanteachersdotopromotelearning?ContentsIntroductionChapter5ThecontributionoftheindividualstudenttothelearningprocessChapter6Whatmakesapersonwanttolearn?MotivationinlanguagelearningChapter7Howdoestheleanerdealwiththeprocessoflearning?Chapter8TheplaceoftasksinthelanguageclassroomChapter9ThelearningcontextChapter10PuttingitalltogetherChapter5ThecontributionofOverviewoftheBookChapter1and2—Getabird’sviewofsomeimportanttheoriesofeducationalpsychology,selectivelyintroducesbehaviorism,cognitivepsychology,constructivismandsocialinteractionism,andfinallysocialconstructivism.Chapter3and4—Abouttheteacher,teacherbeliefsandtheroleofmediatorChapter5,6and7—Aboutthelearner,influenceofindividualdifferences,motivationandstrategyChapter8Aboutthetask,whichistheinterfacebetweentheteacherandthelearnerOverviewoftheBookChapter1Chapter9—Aboutthecontext,physicalcondition,interpersonalinteractionandpsychologicalatmosphere,layingemphasisontheindividuallearner’sfeelingandunderstandingoftheenvironmentalfactors.Chapter10—Asummary.About10pointswhichcanbetakenasvaluableadvicesforlanguageteachers.Chapter9—Aboutthecontext,pIntroductionPurpose:ExplorethewayofapplyingthecontemporarytheoriesofpsychologytoforeignlanguageteachingThesepsychologicaltheories:behaviorism,cognitivepsychology,constructivism,humanism,socialinteractionismIntroductionPurpose:ExploretHumanism:Reflectslearners’personalfeelingandpersonalneeds;emphasizesthepointthatlearningmusthavepersonalmeaning;alsoholdstheviewofwhole-personeducation(bothaffectiveandcognitive).Constructivism:Emphasizesthatindividuallearnersstartswithpersonalexperiences,andthenconstructtheirownunderstandingoftheworldandconstructionoftheirpersonalmeanings,stresseslearningprocess,andobjectstosimpletransmissionofknowledge.Humanism:Reflectslearners’pSocialInteractionism:Emphasizesthatlearningandpersonaldevelopmenttakesplaceintheinteractionwithotherpeople,andtheteacherisanimportantinteractionalobjectofthelearner.SocialConstructivism:Integrationandinterpretationoftheabovetheories.Here:“Social”isusedinitsnarrowsense.i.e.therelationshipbetweenpeopleandagroup.Itisnolongerconcernedwithpoliticsandeconomy.SocialInteractionism:EmphasiGistofSocialConstructivism:Knowledgeisconstructedbyindividualperson,ratherthanpassedonbyotherpeople;Theconstructiontakesplaceintheinteractionwithotherpeople,anditistheresultofsocialinteraction.Thismodelestablishesitsfouressentialelements:learner,teacher,task,context.Learner--centerTeacher--mediatorTask&context--externalenvironmentGistofSocialConstructivism:Thefourelementscorrelateandinteractwitheachotheradynamicway.Thetheoryalsoabsorbsthegistofhumanism,layingspecialemphasisonlearner’swhole-personeducation.Thatis,besidescognitivedevelopment,thereisalsothedevelopmentoflearner’scompetencecharacterizedbymeta-cognitivefeatures,positiveconceptandpersonalcharacter.ThefourelementscorrelateanPedagogicalImplications1.Moreemphasesarelaidonthesubjectivityoflearners,andtheteachershouldprovideprocessandexperienceforthelearnerstoconducttheconstructionofpersonalmeaning.2.Besidesprovidingprocessandexperience,theteacherplaystheroleofamediator,guidingthemintheappropriateresponsetothemeaningfulstimuli,helpingthemunderstandthesignificanceandgoalofthetask,promotingthemtotakeshapetheirownconsciousnessofself-control,self-confidenceandprovidesthemwithfavorablepsychologicalenvironment,etc.PedagogicalImplications1.Mo3.Allthesearedonethroughtheuseoflanguage.Thechallengetheteacherisfacedwithisthat,heshouldnotbesatisfiedwiththeroutineclassroomexpression,heshouldalsolearntouselanguagetorealizethefunctionofmediation.4.Foreignlanguageteachingmusthaveeducationvalue,mustmakelearningprocessfullofpersonalmeaning.Communicativeapproachmakesusunderstand“informationgap”,andwelearntodo“meaningfulpractices”.However,whatkindofinformationandmeaningareofvaluetothelearner?Thebooktellsusthat,itmustberelated3.Allthesearedonethroughtothelearners’personalexperiencesandthepresentsituation.,whichrequiresforeignlanguageteacherstolearntounderstandlearners’individualities,uniqueness,theirpersonaltraitsandneeds.5.Theeducationalvalueofforeignlanguageteachingalsoliesinthepromotionoflearners’whole-personeducation.i.e.besideslanguagelearningitself,therearealsothedevelopmentoflearningaptitude,positiveaffectivefactorandnoblecharacter.6.Teacher’sownlearning---tothelearners’personalexpSocialconstructivismalsoappliestotheinterpretationofteacher’scognitiveprocess.Inhisownexperienceofteaching,hisownunderstanding(knowledge)andbeliefoflearningandteachingtakesshape,onthebasisofwhichhisownteachingpracticeisguided.Thisbookadvocatesteacher’sreflectiononhisownteachingpractice,makingthoseimplicitpersonalbeliefsembeddedinteachingpracticeexplicit,sothathewillhaveaclearpictureandaconsciousknowledgeofhisownteachingandtheimportanceofmakingmodifications.Asaresult,teacher’sprofessionaldevelopmentispromoted.SocialconstructivismalsoappChapter1

BehaviorismandcognitivepsychologyThepositivistschoolPremise—knowledgeandfactsexistwithintherealworldandcanbediscoveredbysettingupexperimentsinwhichconditionsarecarefullycontrolledandwherehypothesesaresetupandtested.Chapter1

BehaviorismandcogBehaviorismRootedinpositivismS-R/classicalconditioningSkinner:EmphasizetheimportanceofreinforcementExplainlearningintermsofoperantconditioningAudiolingualmethodBehaviorismRootedinpositivisCognitivepsychologyInformationprocessing(attention,perception,memory)Memory(short-term/workingmemory,long-termmemory;Tulving,episodic/semanticmemory)Intelligence(GardnerMIT)CognitivepsychologyInformatioMITanditsimplicationsLinguisticLogical-mathematicalSpatialInterpersonalIntrapersonalMusicalBodily-kinestheticNaturalisticexistentialMITanditsimplicationsLinguiConstructivismPiagetEmphasizetheconstructivenatureofhumanlearningprocessIndividualsareactivelyinvolvedrightfrombirthinconstructingpersonalmeaningStages:Sensori-motorstageIntuitive/preoperationalstageOperationalstageConcreteoperationalstageFormaloperationalstageConstructivismPiagetOthertermsMaturationEquilibrationAssimilation/accommodationAdaptationOthertermsMaturationJeromeBrunnerDiscoverylearningEducationofthewholepersonLearnhowtolearn3modesofthinking:enactive,iconic,symbolicJeromeBrunnerDiscoverylearniGeorgeKellyPersonal-constructtheorypremise:manasscientistImportantimplication:meaningfulvsmeaninglesslearningGeorgeKellyPersonal-constructChapter2

HumanismandSocialinteractionismErikEriksonEpigeneticprinciple8stages:Trust/mistrustAutonomy/doubtInitiative/guiltIndustry/inferiorityIdentity/roleconfusionIntimacy/senseofisolationGeneravity/senseofstagnationIntegrity/despairChapter2

HumanismandSocialAbrahamMaslowHierarchyofhumanneeds:Beingneeds:self-actualizationaestheticneedscognitiveneedsDeficiencyneeds:needforself-esteemneedforinterpersonalclosenessneedforsafetyandsecuritybasicphysiologicalneedsAbrahamMaslowHierarchyofhumCarlRogersPremise:Humanbeingshaveanaturalpotentialforlearning.Significantlearningwillonlytakeplacewhenthesubjectmatterisperceivedtobeofpersonalrelevancetothelearnerandwhenitinvolvesactiveparticipationbythelearner.Learningwhichisself-initiatedandwhichinvolvesfeelingsaswellascognitionismostlikelytobelastingandpervasive.CarlRogersPremise:Whenthereisaperceivedthreattothelearner’sself-image,resistancetolearningislikelytooccur.Independence,creativityandself-reliancearemostlikelytoflourishinlearningsituationswhereexternalcriticismiskepttoaminimumandwhereself-evaluationisencouraged.Themostsociallyusefulkindoflearningtopreparelearnerstocopewiththedemandsofthemodernworldislearningabouttheprocessoflearningitself,acontinuingopennesstoexperienceandapreparednesstobecomeinvolvedintheprocessofchange.WhenthereisaperceivedthreHumanisminELTTheSilentWaySuggestopaediaCommunityLanguageLearningAllthethreemethodshavetheirtheoreticalfoundationinpsychologyratherthanlinguistics.HumanisminELTTheSilentWaySocialinteractionismLevVygotskyThoughtandLanguage(1962)MindinSociety(1978)MediationZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD)---thelayerofskillorknowledgewhichisjustbeyondthatwithwhichthelearneriscurrentlycapableofcoping.SocialinteractionismLevVygotReuvenFeuersteinAnyonecanbecomeafullyeffectivelearnerStructuralcognitivemodifiabilityInstrumentalenrichmentCognitivemapReuvenFeuersteinASocialConstructivistModelFourkeyfactorsinvolvedinthelearningprocess---teachers,learners,tasksandcontextsTheirrelationship---teachersselecttaskswhichreflecttheirbeliefsaboutteachingandlearning.Learnersinterprettasksinwaysthataremeaningfulandpersonaltothemasindividuals.Thetaskistheinterfacebetweentheteacherandlearners.Teachersandlearnersalsointeractwitheachother;ASocialConstructivistModelFthewaythatteachersbehaveinclassroomsreflectstheirvaluesandbeliefs,andthewayinwhichlearnersreacttoteacherswillbeaffectedbytheindividualcharacteristicsofthelearnersandthefeelingsthattheteacherconveystothem.Thesethreeelements:teacher,taskandlearnerareinthiswayadynamicequilibrium.thewaythatteachersbehaveiMoreover,thecontextinwhichthelearningtakesplacewillplayanimportantpartinshapingwhathappenswithinit.Thisincludestheemotionalenvironment,thephysicalenvironment,thewholeschoolethos,thewidersocialenvironment,thepoliticalenvironmentandtheculturalsetting.Thiscanberepresentedasasetofconcentriccircles,influencingeachother,withtheparticipantsplayinganongoingpartinshapingthoseenvironments.Moreover,thecontextinwhichChapter3

Whatdoteachersbringtotheteaching-learningprocess?Aconstructivistviewofeducation:1toempowerlearnerstothinkforthemselves2toperpetuateinthenextgenerationwaysofactingandthinkingthatarejudgedthebestbythepresentgenerationChapter3

WhatdoteachersbrInGlaserfeld’sview,aconstructivistapproachtoeducationisbestputintopracticebypresentingissues,conceptsandtasksintheformofproblemstobeexploredindialogueratherthanasinformationtobeingestedandreproduced.InGlaserfeld’sview,aconstrAconstructivistviewofteaching:BySalmonNotasthepassingonofaparcelofobjectiveknowledge,butastheattempttosharewhatyouyourselffindpersonallymeaningful.Constructivistapproachemphasizesthatfactthatnotwoteachersandnotwoteachingsituationsareeverthesame.Andanimportantcomponentofaconstructivistapproachtoeducationisforteacherstobecomeawareofwhattheirownbeliefsandviewsoftheworldare,whichleasusintothenotionofthereflectivepractitioner.AconstructivistviewofteachTheteacherasreflectivepractitionerTeacherssubjecttheireverydayprofessionalpracticetoongoingcriticalreflectionandmakecleartheirownparticularworldviewbymeansofsuchconsideration.Thetaskofthereflectivepractitioneristomaketacitorimplicitknowledgeexplicitbyreflectiononaction,byconstantlygeneratingquestionsandcheckingouremergingtheorieswithbothpersonalpastexperienceandwiththereflectionsofothers.Schon’sdistinctionbetweenreflection-in-actionandreflection-onactionTheteacherasreflectivepracTeachers’beliefsBeliefsaboutlearnersBeliefsaboutlearningBeliefsaboutthemselvesBeliefsaboutteachingTeachers’beliefsBeliefsaboutChapter4

Whatcanteachersdotopromotelearning?Feuerstein’stheoryofmediationDifferencesbetweenteacherasmediatorandteacherasdisseminatorofinformation---1Mediationmustbeconcernedwithempowering,withhelpinglearnerstoacquiretheknowledge,skillsandstrategiestheywillneedinordertoprogress,tolearnmore,totackleproblems,tofunctioneffectivelyinaparticularcultureandachangingsociety,andtomeetnew,emergingandunpredictabledemands.Chapter4

Whatcanteachersdo2Itisalsoconcernedwithhelpinglearnerstobecomeautonomous,totakecontroloftheirownlearning,withthefundamentalaimofenablingthemtobecomeindependentthinkersandproblemsolvers.2ItisalsoconcernedwithheKeyfeaturesofmediationSignificancePurposebeyondthehereandnowSharedintentionKeyfeaturesofmediationSigniAsenseofcompetenceControlofownbehaviorGoal-settingChallengeAwarenessofchangeAbeliefinpositiveoutcomesAsenseofcompetenceSharingIndividualityAsenseofbelongingSharingChapter5

ThecontributionoftheindividualstudentstothelearningprocessProblemswiththetraditionalnotionofindividualdifferences:Traditionalresearchonindividualdifferenceshasbeenmainlyconcernedwithmeasuring,labelingandgroupingpeople.Thepurposeofsuchresearchisusuallynottoidentifyhowindividualsdifferbuttogroupthemaccordingtoperceivedsimilarities.Chapter5

ThecontributionofThefindingshavebeenoflimitedpracticalvaluebecausetheydonotinformushowwecanhelpanyindividualtobecomeamoreeffectivelearner.Inmanyinstancestheydonotevenhelpustoimprovethefunctioningofthegroupsthatareidentifiedbytheresearch.Researchinthisareaisoftenbasedonatheoryoflearningwhichviewspeople’sbehaviorasbeingheavilyinfluencedbycertaintraitsorattributeswhicharefixed.ThefindingshavebeenoflimiSuggestedstartingpoints:Wemuststartfromatheoryoflearningthatisrobustandtowhichasresearchersandteacherswesubscribe.Suchatheoryshouldenableustofocusontheuniquenessofindividualsaswellashelpingustoseewhattheyhaveincommon.Itshouldalsobeatheoryofhowpeoplechangeratherthanhowtheystartthesame.Suggestedstartingpoints:Wem

Thisshouldgiverisetoimplicationsforactionandintervention.Itshouldenableusalsotosupportindividualsintakingpersonalcontroloftheirownlearning.Indoingsoitmustbeconnectedtoindividuals’viewsofthemselvesaslearners.ThisshouldgiverisetoimplThedevelopmentandimportanceofself-conceptSelf-concept---aglobaltermreferringtotheamalgamationofallourperceptionsandconceptionsaboutourselveswhichgiverisetooursenseofpersonalidentity.Moreformally,itisdefinedas“thetotalityofacomplexanddynamicsystemoflearnedbeliefswhichindividualholdstobetrueabouthisorherpersonalexistenceandwhichgivesconsistencytoisorherpersonality.”ThedevelopmentandimportanceAsyoungchildrenbegintoconstructamoreorlessstableviewoftheworld,sotheybegintodevelopalsoanawarenessofthemselvesasindividualsandanunderstandingoftheirplacewithinthatworld.Thisdevelopingself-conceptinturncomestoinfluencethewayinwhichtheytrytomakesenseofotheraspectsoftheirworld.AsyoungchildrenbegintoconTherelationshipisreciprocal:individuals’viewsoftheworldinfluencetheirself-concept,whileatthesametimetheirself-conceptsaffecttheirviewsoftheworld.Bothoftheseviewswillaffecttheirsuccessinlearningsituations.TherelationshipisreciprocalLocusofcontrol(LoC)AtermderivedfromtheSocialLearningtheoryofRoter(1954),referringtoaperson’sbeliefsaboutcontroloverlifeevents.Peoplewhofeelpersonallyresponsibleforeverythingthathappenstothemintheirlivesareinternalisers,whilethosepeoplewhofeelthateventsintheirlivesarealldeterminedbyforcesbeyondtheircontrol,suchasfate,luck,orotherpeople,aretermedexternalisers.Locusofcontrol(LoC)AtermdAttributiontheoryHeider(1944,1958)Weiner(1979,1980,1986)Itisabouttowhatpeopleattributetheirsuccessorfailureonaparticularlanguagelearningtask.AttributiontheoryHeider(1944Somepossibleattributionsforsuccessare:Iamgoodatlearninglanguages;Iknowhowtodothissortoftask;Iworkedhard;Thetaskwaseasy.SomepossibleattributionsforConversely,someattributionsforfailureare:I’mnogoodatlanguages;Thetaskwasboring;Idon’tlikelanguages;Ididn’ttry;Itwastoodifficult.Conversely,someattributionsEssentially,Weinersuggestedthat,onthewhole,peopletendtorefertofourmainsetsofattributionsfortheirperceivedsuccessesandfailuresinlife:ability,effort,luckandtheperceiveddifficultyofthetaskwithwhichtheyarefaced.Essentially,WeinersuggestedChapter6

Whatmakesapersonwanttolearn?

MotivationinlanguagelearningDichotomyofmotivation:IntrinsicvsextrinsicInstrumentalvsintegrativeChapter6

WhatmakesapersonAcognitiveviewofmotivationFromacognitiveperspective,thefactorthatisofcentralimportanceisthatofchoice;namely,peoplehavechoiceoverthewayinwhichtheybehaveand,therefore,havecontrolovertheiractions.Acognitiveviewofmotivationcentersaroundindividualsmakingdecisionsabouttheirownactionsasopposedtobeingatthemercyofexternalforcesoverwhichtheyhavenocontrol.AcognitiveviewofmotivationHowever,therearelimitationstotakingapurelycognitiveapproachassuchaviewfailstotakeaccountoftheinfluenceofaffectivefactors,theemotions,orofsocialandcontextualinfluences.However,therearelimitationsAsocialconstructivistviewofmotivationAconstructivistviewofmotivationcentersaroundthepremisethateachindividualismotivateddifferently.Peoplewillmaketheirownsenseofthevariousexternalinfluencesthatsurroundtheminwaysthatarepersonaltothem,andtheywillactontheirinternaldispositionandusetheirpersonalattributesinuniqueways.AsocialconstructivistviewoTherefore,whatmotivatesonepersontolearnaforeignlanguageandkeepsthatpersongoinguntilheorshehasachievedalevelofproficiencywithwhichheorsheissatisfiedwilldifferfromindividualtoindividual.Besides,anindividual’smotivationisalsosubjecttosocialandcontextualinfluences.Therefore,whatmotivatesoneAproposeddefinitionofmotivationMotivationmaybeconstruedas:Astateofcognitiveandemotionalarousalwhichleadstoaconsciousdecisiontoact,andwhichgivesrisetoaperiodofsustainedintellectualand/orphysicaleffortinordertoattainapreviouslysetgoal(orgoals)AproposeddefinitionofmotivAmodelofmotivationAthree-stagemodelofmotivation:

Reasonsfordoingsth.DecidingtoDosth.SustainingtheEffort,orpersistingAmodelofmotivationAthree-sInternalfactorsIntrinsicinterestofactivityPerceivedvalueofactivitySenseofagencyMasterySelf-conceptAttitudesOtheraffectivestatesDevelopmentalageandstagegenderInternalfactorsIntrinsicinteExternalfactorsSignificantothersThenatureofinteractionwithsignificantothersThelearningenvironmentThebroadercontextExternalfactorsSignificantotSuggestionsforlanguageteacherstounderstandmotivationRecognizethecomplexityofmotivationBeawareofbothinitiatingandsustainingmotivationDiscusswithlearnerswhytheycarryingoutactivitiesInvolvelearnersinmakingdecisionsrelatedtolearningthelanguageInvolvelearnersinsettinglanguagelearninggoalsSuggestionsforlanguageteachRecognizepeopleasindividualsBuildupindividuals’beliefsaboutthemselvesDevelopinternalbeliefsHelptomovetowardsamasteryorientedstyleEnhanceintrinsicmotivationBuildupasupportivelearningenvironmentGivefeedbackthatisinformationalRecognizepeopleasindividualChapter7

Howdoesthelearnerdealwiththeprocessoflearning?Learningstrategies:Repeatingwordsoverandoveragain;Listeningattentivelytotrytodistinguishwords;Tryingtoworkouttherulesofthelanguagebyforminghypothesesabouthowitworks;Tryingoutthesehypothesestoseeiftheywork;Testingyourselftoseeifyourememberwords;Chapter7

HowdoesthelearneGuessingthemeaningsofunknownwords;Usingyourknowledgeoflanguagerulestotrytomakenewsentences;Rehearsinginyourheadwhatyouareabouttosay;Practicingthesoundsofthelanguagetoyourself;Askingaspeakertorepeatsomething;Pretendingthatyouunderstandinordertokeepthecommunicationgoing.GuessingthemeaningsofunknoSkillsandstrategiesAdistinction---learningstrategiesareconceivedofasoperatingatalevelaboveskills,andcanbeseenastheexecutiveprocesseswhichmanageandcoordinatetheskills.Alearningstrategyislikeatacticusedbyaplayer.Itisaseriesofskillsusedwithaparticularlearningpurposeinmind.Strategiesarepurposefulandgoal-oriented.SkillsandstrategiesAdistincLearningtolearnEducationisalifelongprocess,onepurposeofwhichistoequiplearnerstocopeinachangingworld.Importantconcepts:AutonomouslanguagelearnerSelf-directedlearningLearnertrainingLearnhowtolearnLearningtolearnEducationisMetacognitivestrategiesAdistinctionbetweencognitivestrategiesandmetacognitivestrategies:Cognitivestrategiesareseenasmentalprocessesdirectlyconcernedwiththeprocessingofinformationinordertolear,thatisforobtaining,storage,retrievaloruseofinformation.MetacognitivestrategiesAdistMetacognitivestrategiesincludeAnawarenessofwhatoneisdoingandthestrategiesoneisemploying,aswellasaknowledgeabouttheactualprocessoflearning;Anabilitytomanageandregulateconsciouslytheuseofappropriatelearningstrategiesfordifferentsituations;Anawarenessofone’sownmentalprocessesandanabilitytoreflectonhowonelearners,namely,knowingaboutone’sknowing.

MetacognitivestrategiesincluRubin’scategoriesofstrategiesLearningstrategiescommunicationstrategiesSocialstrategiesHere,learningstrategiescontributedirectlytolearning,whilecommunicationstrategiesandsocialstrategiescontributeindirectlytolearning.Rubin’scategoriesofstrategiOxford’slistof12featuresoflanguagelearningstrategiesTheycontributetothemaingoal,communicativecompetence.Theyallowlearnerstobecomemoreself-directed.Theyexpandtheroleofteachers.Theyareproblemoriented.Theyarespecificactionstakenbythelearner.Theyinvolvemanyaspectsoftheleaner,notjustthecognitive.Oxford’slistof12featuresoTheysupportlearningbothdirectlyandindirectly.Theyarenotalwaysobservable.Theyareoftenconscious.Theycanbetaught.Theyareflexible.Theyareinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors.TheysupportlearningbothdirProceduresforstrategytrainingO’malleyandChamot’s:PreparationPresentationPracticeEvaluationexpansionProceduresforstrategytrainiChapter8

TheplaceoftasksinthelanguageclassroomDefinition---aforumwithinwhichmeaningfulinteractionbetweentwoormoreparticipantscantakeplace.Thenatureofataskisinteractional.Componentsofatask(Nunan1989,1993):InputdataActivities/proceduresGoalsRolesofteachersRolesoflearnerssettingChapter8

TheplaceoftasksTheme–centeredinteraction(LegutkeandThomas1991):

IWeThemeTheme–centeredinteraction(LeGradingtasksandtaskdifficultyNunan’sanalysisoffactorsaffectingtaskdifficulty:Thegrammaticalcomplexityofthetext;Thelengthofthetext;Thepropositionaldensity;Thevocabularyused;Thespeedoflisteningtextsandthenumberofspeakersinvolve