外國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué) 基本概念

IntroductionWhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatisLinguistics（語(yǔ)言學(xué)）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.SomeBasicDistinctions（區(qū)分）inLinguisticsSpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple（原貝U）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范疇）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（說明性）Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.Synchronic（共時(shí)）andDiachronic（歷時(shí)）StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Langue（語(yǔ)言）andParole（言語(yǔ)）ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（實(shí)際的）language,orrealizationoflangue.Competence（能力）andPerformance（行為）Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（發(fā)聲）.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology（音韻學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology（詞法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics（語(yǔ)義學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics（應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics（歷史語(yǔ)言學(xué)）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics（人文語(yǔ)言學(xué)）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics（神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics（數(shù)學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics（計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconcepts（概念）areapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate（協(xié)調(diào)）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（調(diào)節(jié)）bytheear,theauditorynerve（神申經(jīng)）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（傳送）betweenmouthandear.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（氣流發(fā)生器官）theproducerofvoice（聲音發(fā)生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（聲音共振器官）Consonants（輔音）Placesofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）：bilabial,（雙唇）Labiodentals,（唇齒）dental,（齒）alveolar,（齒齦）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顎）velar,（軟腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（聲門）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）Vowels（元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）Phonology（音韻學(xué)）phonemes（音素）：adistinctive（有區(qū)另U的）soundinalanguage.Allophones（音位變體）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.Minimalpairs（最小對(duì)立體）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Freevariation（自由變異）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment（環(huán)境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.Complementarydistribution（互補(bǔ)分布）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties（性質(zhì)）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable（音節(jié)），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音調(diào)）andintonation（語(yǔ)調(diào)）.Morphology（詞法）inflection（構(gòu)形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折詞綴）Word-formation（構(gòu)詞）：theprocesses（過程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明詞法關(guān)系）Theyarecompound（合成）andderivation（派生）.Morpheme（詞素）：thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.Allomorph（同質(zhì)異象變體）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,（詞根）affix（詞綴）andstem（詞干）Lexicon（語(yǔ)言詞匯）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Closed-classwords（封閉性：andopen-classwords（開放性：：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple（實(shí)際上：indefiniteorunlimited.Wordclass（詞性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.Lexeme（詞位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Idiom（習(xí)語(yǔ)，成語(yǔ)）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords（詞序）whichissemantically（語(yǔ)義上）andoftensyntactically（句法上）restricted.（限制）Collocation（搭配）：thehabitual（習(xí)慣的）co-occurrences（同時(shí)出現(xiàn)）ofindividuallexicalitems.Syntax（句法：Positionalrelationorwordorder（詞序）：thesequential（順序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Constructionorconstituent（句子結(jié)構(gòu)：：theoverallprocessofinternal（內(nèi)部：organizationofagrammaticalunit.Syntacticfunction（句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,（修飾語(yǔ)）complements（補(bǔ)語(yǔ)：,etc.Category（范疇）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.Sentence:ItistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethoughtSemanticsConceptualismormentalism（概念主義）:FollowingF.DeSaussure（索學(xué)爾）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被扌旨），i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相關(guān)聯(lián)系）Mechanism（機(jī)械主義）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布魯費(fèi)爾德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）Contextualism（語(yǔ)境主義）：Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.Behaviorism（行為主義）：Behaviouristsattempttodefine（定義）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（說話）itandtheresponse（反應(yīng)）itcallsforthinthehearer."functionalism（功能主義）：functionalistsasrepresented（代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格學(xué)派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（爭(zhēng)辯）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解釋）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy（同義詞：，antonymy（反義詞）,hyponymy（下層次）Polysemy（一詞多義）andHomonymy（同音異義詞）Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.（意義成分）2）predication（表述：analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3）relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoretermsLanguagevariation（語(yǔ)言變化：Lexicalchange（詞匯的變化）：changesinlexis.Invention:（新造詞：newentities.Compounding合成詞：Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.Blending:（混合詞：：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots.Abbreviationorclipping（縮寫：Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpartorcuttingtheinitialpart.acronym取首字母的縮寫詞）Itismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodified（修飾：he