歐洲文化入門第五章

歐洲文化入門第五章TheSeventeenthCenturyⅠ.GeneralIntroductionⅡ.ScienceⅢ.Philosophy,PoliticsandLiteratureinEnglandⅣ.Descartes;FrenchClassicismⅤ.Art

I.GeneralIntroductionInthe17thcenturyEuropeadvancedfromtheMiddleAgestothemoderntimes.1.Thisadvancebeganinscience,inastronogy,physics,andpuremathematics,owingtotheworkofGalileo,Kepler,NewtonandDescartes.2.theoutlookofeducatedmenwastransformed.3.thenewscienceandphilosophygaveagreatpushtothepoliticalstrugglewagesbythenewlyemergedclass,thebourgeoisie,andotherclasses.BertrandRussell伯特蘭·羅素concludes,“themodernworld,sofarasmentaloutlookisconcerned,beginsintheseventeenthcentury.”Science1.FromCopernicustoKeplerNicolausCopernicus尼古拉·哥白尼wastheimmediateforerunnerofmodernscience.Work:TheRevolutionoftheHeavenlyOrbs天體運(yùn)行論Heputforwardthetheorythatthesun,nottheearth,isthecentreoftheuniverse.（日心說(shuō)）Howeverhisheliocentrictheorywasputforwardonlyasahypothesis.Kepler開普勒isbestknownforhisdiscoveryofthethreelawsofplanetarymotion開普勒三大行星定律:1.Eachplanetmovesinanellipse,notaperfectcircle,withthesunatonefocus;2.Eachplanetmovesmorerapidlywhennearthesunthanfartherfromit.3.Thedistanceofeachplanetfromthesunbearssdefiniterelationtothetimeperiodtheplanettooktocompletearevolutionaroundthesun.GalileoGalilei(1564-1642)

Galileowasthefirsttoapplythetelescopetothestudyoftheskies.HepublishedhisdiscoveriesinthebookSidereusNuncius（theStarryMessenger）天體信息.WhathesawintheskywiththehelpofthetelescopeprovedthatPtolemy’s（托勒密）geocentricsystemsimplywouldnotworkandthatCopernicus’spowerfulhypothesishadbeenright.Galileowasthefirsttoestablishthelawofthefallingbodies.SirIsaacNewton牛頓(1642-1727)Inmathematics,Newtoninventedcalculus.微積分Inoptics光學(xué),hediscoveredthatwhitelightiscomposedofallthecolorsofthespectrum.InPhysics,hediscoveredthelawoftheuniversalgravitation萬(wàn)有引力定律.Newton’sdiscoveriesweresummarizedinhisgreatbookPhilosophiaeNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica(MathematicalPrinciplesofNaturalPhilosophy《自然哲學(xué)的數(shù)學(xué)解讀》GottfriedWilhelmvonLeibniz

(1646-1716)

LeibnizwasaGermanphilosopher,scientist,mathematician,historiananddiplomat.HeopposedtheCartesianaccountofmatter.Hebelievedthattheworldwasmadeofsimple,active,unconcernedandunextendedsubstances,eachfromitspointofviewreflectingthewholeuniverse,andallcoordinatedinpre-establishedharmony.HeandNewtoninventedindependentlytheDifferentialandintegralcalculus.Hismajorworks:

HypothesisPhysicalNova（NewPhysicalHypothesis）（1671）

DiscourseonMetaphysics（1686）論形而上學(xué)

NewSystemofNature（1695）論大自然體系

NewEssaysConcerningHumanUnderstanding（1704）論人類的理解力InventionofNewInstruments

Themicroscopewasinventedin1590.thetelescopewasinventedin1608byaDutchman.Galileoinventedthethermometer溫度計(jì)andoneofhispupilsmadethebarometer氣壓計(jì).Thependulumclock擺鐘appearedin1656.TwoMeritsSharedbytheGreatScientistsofthe17thCenturyFirst,theyshowedboldnessinframinghypotheses.Second,theyallhadimmensepatienceinobservation.Thecombinationofthetwomeritsbroughtaboutfundamentalchangesinman’sscientificandphilosophicalthinking.Philosophy,PoliticsandLiteratureinEnglandFrancisBacon(1561-1626)ThomasHobbes(1588-1679)JohnLocke(1632-1704)JohnMiltonandtheEnglishRevolutionFrancisBacon培根(1561-1626)

FanciesBaconwasanEnglishphilosopher,essayistandstatesman.Majorworks:TheAdvancementofLearning《論學(xué)習(xí)的循序漸進(jìn)》,TheNewAtlantis新亞特蘭蒂斯》.TheNovumOrganism（NewMethod）

andEssays18篇散文集Thewholebasisofhisphilosophywaspractical:Togivemankindmasteryovertheforcesofnaturebymeansofscientificdiscoveriesandscientificinventions.Heheldthatphilosophyshouldbekeptseparatefromtheology,notintimatelybeblendedwithitasinScholasticism.3.Induction/TheInductiveMethod歸納法n.⑴.TheInductiveMethodwasinitiatedbyFrancisBacon.⑵.Inplainerwords,inductionmeansreasoningfromparticularfactsorindividualcasestoageneralconclusion.⑶.Thisinductivemethodwasputforwardinoppositiontotheaccepteddeductivemethod演繹法,well–establishedinEuropeforalmostathousandyearsbyAristotle.-----n.reasoningfromaknownprincipletotheunknownandfromthegeneraltothespecific.Bacon’sworks:----Essays58篇散文集

特點(diǎn)：Theyarenotedfortheirstrikingtersestyleandsharpobservationaboutlife.言簡(jiǎn)意賅觀察敏銳SomefamousquotationsfromBacon:Knowledgeispower.Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested.（OfStudies）《論學(xué)習(xí)》Readingmakesafullman,conferenceareadyman,andwritinganexactman.（Ibid）同上Booksmustfollowscience,andnotsciencebooks.讀書，不可死讀書。Wivesareyoungmen’smistresses,companionsformiddleage,andoldmen’snurses.ThomasHobbes霍布斯(1588-1679)

ThomasHobbes,authorofLeviathan

《論政治》,,oneofthemostcelebratedpoliticaltreatisesinEuropeanliterature.a.Hobbes’sMaterialistViewsHobbesarguedthatourknowledgecomesfromexperience.b.TheNaturalStateofWarHobbesbelievedthatmanisselfishbynaturec.TheLawsofNatureAccordingtoHobbes,thefundamentallawofnatureisthegeneralruleofreasonthateverymanoughttoEndeavourforpeace.d.TheTheoryoftheSocialContract社會(huì)契約論Hobbesmaintainedthatinordertogetmenoutofthemiserableconditionofwar,keeptheninawe,andtiethembyfearofpunishmenttotheperformanceoftheiragreements,andobservationofthelawsofnature,itisnecessarythatthereshouldbeacommonpowerorgovernmentbackedbyforceandabletopunish.

JohnLocke洛克(1632-1704)a.Locke’sMaterialistViewsHismaterialistviewsareexpressedinoneofhischiefworksEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding.Hisbasictheoryisthatallourideasareultimatelyderivedfromsensationorfromreflection,thatthesetwomakeupexperienceandthatallourknowledgespringsfromexperience.b.Locke’sPoliticalPhilosophyIn1690,LockepublishedhistwoTreatisesofCivilGovernment《國(guó)內(nèi)政府契約論》.Lockeflatlyrejectedthetheoryofdivinerightofkings.

公開反對(duì)君權(quán)神授Heridiculedthetheoryoftransmissionofroyalauthority.批判王位世襲制Lockeputforwardtheideaofthestateofnature:“Allmenarenaturallyfreeandequalinthestateofnature.”4.ForLocke,NaturalLaw,therefore,meansauniversallyobligatorymorallaw廣泛的強(qiáng)制性的道德法則promulgatedbythehumanreason,whereasforHobbesitmeansthelawofpower,forceandfraud.5.Lockefirmlybelievedinnaturalrights.天賦人權(quán)Thenaturalrightistherightofprivateproperty.c.TheSocialContractLockebelievedthatsocietyisoutofnecessity,convenienceandman’sowninterest,andtherefore,societyisnaturaltoman.Heemphasizedthatthesocialcontractmustbeunderstoodasinvolvingtheindividual’sconsenttosubmittothewillofthemajorityandthatthewillofthemajoritymustprevail.Healsobelievedthattherulerofgovernmentisonepartnerofthesocialcontract.JohnMiltonandtheEnglishRevolutionTheEnglishRevolutiontookplaceinthemiddleofthe17thcentury.Bytheendofthe16thcentury,CalvinismhadspreadtoEngland.Asaresult,thePuritanMovementwasstartedinEngland.In1642,theCivilWarbrokeoutbetweenthekingandtheParliamentandtheEnglishBourgeoisiewonthevictory.CromwellbecametheheadofthegovernmentknownastheProtector.AfterthedeathofCromwellin1658,thecountrywasinconfusion.In1660,CharlesII,thesonofthebeheadedking,returnedfromFranceandwasputonthethrone.CromwellCharlesIIIn1688,theDutchkingWilliamandhiswifeMarywereinvitedtobethejointrulersofEngland.Thustheshortedrestorationended.Thiseventof1688wascalledtheGloriousRevolution.InDecember,1689,theBillofRightswasenactedbytheEnglishParliament.ItestablishedthesupremacyoftheParliamentandputanendtodivinemonarchyinEngland.InEnglishLiterature,JohnMiltonrankswithShakespeareandChaucer.Threemasterepicpoems:ParadiseLost,ParadiseRegainedandSamsonAgonistes.

Descartes;FrenchClassicismReneDescartes(1596-1650)FrenchClassicismReneDescartes笛卡爾(1596-1650)ItisgenerallybelievedthatmodernphilosophybeginswithFranceBaconinEnglandandwithReneDescartesinFrance.Works:RulesfortheDirectionoftheMind,DiscourseonMethod,MeditationsConcerningFirstPhilosophyandObjectionsandReplies.a.TheMethodofCartesianDoubtHebelievedthattheoverthrowofthepresentopinionandthebreak-upwiththepastphilosophy,Scholasticismincluded,arenecessaryconditionofestablishingsomethingfirstandlastinginthescience.b.Descartes'TheoryofKnowledgeDescartesemployedmethodicdoubtwithaviewtodiscoveringwhethertherewasanyindubitabletruth.c.InnateIdeasd.Descartes'DualismFrenchClassicism

Frenchclassicismofthe17thcenturywasnotconsciousofbeingaclassicalrevival.Itintendedtoproducealiterature,Frenchtothecore,whichwasworthyofGreekandclassicalideals.Threecharacteristics:a)IntheFrenchclassicalliterature,manwasviewedasasocialbeingconsciouslyandwillinglysubjecttodiscipline;b)Rationalismwasbelievedtobeabletodiscoverthebestprinciplesofhumanconductandtheuniversalprinciplesofnaturallaws.c)Frenchclassicismwasfoundofusingclassicalforms,classicalthemesandvalues.a.PierreCorneille彼埃爾?高乃依(1606-1684)CorneillewasthefirstgreatFrenchneoclassicaldramatist.Hismasterpiecewasatragic-comedy,LeCid.b.JeanRacine拉辛(1637-1699)RacinewasthegreatesttragicdramatistoftheFrenchneoclassicaltheatre.Inhistragedies,hemergedtheGreeksenseoffatewiththereligiousemphasisonoriginalsin.Hisrepresentativetragedies:Andromaque《昂朵瑪格》,Phaedrac.Moliere莫里哀(1622-1673)Moliere,whoserealnamewasJeanBaptistePoqueline,wasthebestrepresentativedramatistofFrenchclassicalcomedies.Works:Tartuffe偽君子,LeMisanthrope憤世嫉俗，L’Avare吝嗇鬼

ArtBaroqueArtDutchProtestantArtArtandArchitectureinFranceMusicBaroqueArt巴洛克藝術(shù)

Itwascharacterizedbydramaticintensityandsentimentalappealwithalotofemphasisonlightandcolor.a.GiovanniLorenzoBernini喬凡尼·洛倫佐·貝尼尼(1598-1680)ItaliansculptorandarchitectMajorworks:David,TheEcstasyofSt.TheresaDavid,TheEcstasyofSt.Theresab.MichelangeloCaravaggio米開朗琪羅(1573-1610)thefirstpaintertospotlighthissceneslikeastagedirector,contrastingbrillianthighlightswithsharplyoutlineddeepshadow.Majorworks:TheCallingofSt.Matthew圣馬賽的呼喚

,TheCardsharps紙牌游戲

TheCallingofSt.MatthewTheCardsharpsc.FrancescoBorromini博羅米尼Bo