(生態(tài)學及生物圈之介紹)

An

Introduction

to

Ecologyand

the

Biosphere

(

生

態(tài)

學

及

生物

圈

之

介

紹

)Chapter50Lecturesby

ChrisRomeroCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsPowerPoint

LecturesforBiology,SeventhEditionNeilCampbelland

JaneReeceKeyConcepts(基本觀念)50.1:Ecology

isthestudyofinteractionsbetweenorganisms

and

the

environment.(生態(tài)學是研究生物輿環(huán)

境間

之

互

動

)50.2:Interactionsbetweenorganismsandthe50.3:Abioticandbioticfactorsinfluencethestructure

and

dynamics

of

aquatic

biomes.(非生物輿生物因子

影

響水生生物之結構輿動態(tài))50.4:Climate

largelydeterminesthedistributionandstructure

ofterrestrialbiomes.(氣候決定陸生生物之結構輿分佈)environment

limit

the

distribution

of

species

.(生物輿環(huán)

境間之互動限制物種之分佈)Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsOverview:TheScopeofEcology(生態(tài)學的範疇)·

Overview:TheScopeof

Ecology·

Ecology

(生態(tài)學)-

lsthescientificstudyofthe

interactions(互environment·

Theseinteractions(互動)-

Determine

boththedistribution(分佈)oforganisms

and

their

abundance(豐

度

)動)betweenorganismsandtheCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings·

Ecology

(生態(tài)學)-

Isanenormouslycomplexand

exciting

areaof

biology.-

Reveals

the

richness

of

the

biosphere

(生物圈)

.Figure50.1.Therichness

ofthe

biosphereevident

inoneareaofa

Panamanianforest.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·

Ci

apctti

b:Ee

g

hneis

dayn

do

heenvironment·

Ecology

(生態(tài)學)—

Hasalong

history

as

adescriptivescience

(

描

述

性

科

學

)—

Is

also

arigorous

experimental

science(實

驗性

科

學

)—

ls

an

integrative

biology(整合性生物學)

·tfmsstuorisweoloons50.1ectnnoCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsOrganismsandtheEnvironment(生物輿環(huán)境)·

Theenvironmentofanyorganism

includes—

Abiotic

(

非

生

物

性

)

,or

nonlivingcomponents:temperature,sunlight,waterand

nutrient.—Biotic

(生物性),or

living

components:

other—

,Alltheorganisms

living

intheenvironment,the

biota

(生物相)(Biota,biomass,biomes)

organisms.Copyright

C2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsEcology

and

Evolutionary

Biology(

演化

生

物

學

)

·

Events

that

occur

in

ecologicaltime—

Affectlifeonthescale

ofevolutionary

time.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsSouthern

Australia

hascool,moist

winters

andwarm,dry

summers.—TasmaniaEnvironmental

components(環(huán)境成份、組成)Affect

the

distribution

and

abundance

of

organisms

(影響生物的分佈輿豐度).Figure

50.2.Distributionand

n

ar

i

hentofookangdanceduebraiCslimh

et

ani

wento,

ietrhn

se

laialdrought.nraostasAuwrthoatKangaroos/km2>2010-205-10Southeastern

Australiahas

a

wet,cool

climate.Red

kangaroosoccurinmostsemiarid

and

aridregions

ofthe

cioirp,withaetri

n

isoepreinterrelatively

low

andAustralia,based

onaerial

survey.1-50.1-1<0.1Limits

of

distributionCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummingsvariable

fromyear

to

year.Scientistorbiologist

usingobservations(觀察)

diesxtprei

i

tei

(分to佈)t

d

(解豐

))f

foorancetions(unplanaeanestonntsumedtaEcologists

(

生

態(tài)

學

家

)species.Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsSubfields

ofEcology(

生

態(tài)

學

之

次

領

域

)

gi

ytr

h,p

h

s-ai

ndposed

by

the

environment.態(tài)·eutr生r(vsoescglamaorsmwr

aanniga

n

ioorFigure50.3a.Organismalecology.Howdohumpbackwhalesselecttheircalvingareas?CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsPopulationecology(

族

群

生

態(tài)

學

)Concentratesmainlyonfactors(因子)that

affect

howmany

individualsofa

particularspecies

live

in

an

area.Figure50.3b.Populationecology.Whatenvironmentalfactorsaffectthereproductiverate

ofdeer

mice?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsCommunityecology(

群

聚

生

態(tài)

學

)Deals

with

the

whole

array

of

interacting

species

in

a

community.Figure50.3cCommunityecology.thWe

hdai

ti

soifn

icees(

種

的

歧

異

度

)that

makepecuensflverst

facup

a

particular

forest?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsEcosystemecology(

生

態(tài)

系

生

態(tài)

學

)Emphasizes

energy

flow(能量流)and

chemicalcycling(

化

學

循

環(huán)

)among

the

variousbioticandabiotic

components

(非生物輿生物組成).Figure50.3dEcosystemecology.Whatfactorscontrolphotosynthetic

productivityin

a

temperate

grasslandecosystem

(草原生態(tài)繫)?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsLandscape

ecology(景觀生態(tài)學)Dealswitharraysofecosystemsand

howtheyarearrangedinageographicregion(

地

理

位

置).Figure50.3e.Landscapeecology.Towhatextentdothetrees

liningthedrainagechannelsinthis

landscapeserveascorridorsofdispersalforforestanimals?Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsThe

biosphere(

生

物

圈

)-Is

the

global

ecosystem,the

sum

of

all

the

planet's

ecosystems

.(全球生態(tài)系是地球所有生態(tài)系的總和)

-The

Earth

is

the

Biosphere1.(地球是生物圈一號)CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings生

物

圈

二

號(Biosphere

2)定名為生物圈2號

,是因為這是模仿第一個生物圈一地球的生態(tài)交流所

建的第二個生物圈。亦即地球是生物圈1號。生物圈2號建於亞利桑納州的奧拉克爾，金主是德州富豪巴斯，佔地三點一英故，約五層樓高，

是以玻璃和鋼筋與外界隔絕的密閉溫室。理面經人工規(guī)劃成熱帶雨林、熱帶大草原、沼澤、沙漠以及海洋等五種自然環(huán)境，擁有千餘種昆蟲、鳥類、動物及魚類,以提供8名研究人員不假外界援助而得獨立生活的自足生活系統(tǒng),不幸結果卻演變成充滿二氧化碳和氮氣的惡

地

，

藤蔓叢生，蟑螂、螞蛾和螽斯橫行。OCEANANNAHTHORNSCRUBMARSHDESERTINTENSIVEAGRICULTURECONSTRUCTIONPHOTOWEST

LUNGTOUR

BIOSPHERE2RAINFORESTcl區(qū)域面積(m2)體積(m3)土壤(m3)水分(m3)大氯(m3)集

約

震

業(yè)

區(qū)20003800027206035220居住區(qū)區(qū)1000110002110997熱帶雨林200035000600010028900熱

帶

草

原

/

海

洋

/

沼

澤2500490004000340041600沙漠140022000400040017600西肺1800150000015000南肺180015750075015000生物圈2號內各個組成部分及結構參數註：上述兩“肺”的體積僅為止其完全膨漲的50%Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings

Ecologyand

Environmental

Issues

·EcologyProvides

the

scientific

understanding—

underlying

environmental

issues●

Rachel

Carson

lscreditedFigure50.4with

startingthe

modernenvironmentalCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummingsmovement.·

Most

ecologists

follow

the

precautionary·

Theprecautionaryprinciple(預警原理/凖則)-

Basicallystatesthat

humans

needtobeconcerned

with

how

their

actions

affect

theenvironment.principleregarding

environmentalissues.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingas

Benjamin

Cummings報告完畢

敬請指教Copyright

C

2005

Pcarson

Education,Inc.p·Concept50.2:Interactionsbetweenorganismsand

the

environment

limit

the

distribution

of·

Ecologists—

Have

longrecognizedglobaland

regionalpatterns

of

distribution

of

organisms

within

thespeciesbiosphereCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingas

Benjamin

Cummings·

Many

naturalists

(

自

然

學

家

)—

Beganto

identifybroad

patternsofdistributionby

namingbiogeographicrealms(生物地理範圍)Figure50.5Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings(生物地理學)good

starting

point

for

understandingPredation.parasitism,AbioticfactorsNo

limitdistribution?Physica

factors·

Biogeography—

Provides

a

what

limitsthe

geographic

distribution

of

speciesWaterOxygenSalinitypHSoil

nutrients

etc.Temperature

LightSoilstructureFireMoisture,etc.becauseDispersallimitsdistribution?Area

inaccessible

Yes

orinsufficienttime(

ti

i

sf

oier

)distribution?ctecparcetoBBehaviorlimitsdistribution?

NoCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsYesHabitatselectiones

competition,

ChemicalFigure50.6disease

factorsSpecies

absentlimitNo·

Dispersal

(散佈)-

Is

the

movement

of

individuals

away

fromcenters

of

high

population

density

orfrom

their

Contributes

to

the

global

distribution

ofarea

of

originorganismsDispersal

and

Distribution(散佈輿分佈)CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsNatural

Range

ExpansionsShowthe

influenceofdispersalondistribution.Figure50.7.Spreadof

igt

a

dingreeklebcsredheexpa1996breeding

populations

ofthegreat-tailedgracklerange

substantially

in(長尾白頭翁)in

theUSA

from

1974

tojust

22

years.CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsSpecies

Transplants(

物

種

轉

移

)·

Species

transplants—

Include

organisms

that

are

intentionally

(有目

的地/有意地)or

accidentally(意外地/無意地)

relocated(重新定位/位移)fromtheiroriginal

distribution

i

u

i

introducednreoesich

they

havthe

communhtwptosrmneettsfecosyCan

oCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsBehaviorand

HabitatSelection·

Someorganisms-

Do

not

occupy

all

oftheirpotential

range·SpeciesdistributionMay

be

limited

by

habitatselection

behaviorCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings報告完畢

敬請指教Copyright

C

2005

Pcarson

Education,Inc.pBiotic

Factors(生物因子)·

Biotic

factors

that

affect

the

distribution

oforganismsmay

include—Interactionswithotherspecies(種間互動)—

Predation(捕

食作用)

Competition

(

競爭

作

用

)CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings

EXPERIMENTW.J.Fletchertestedtheeffectsoftwoalgae-eatinganimals,seaurchinsand

limpets,onseaweedRESULTSFletcherobserveda

largedifference

inseaweed

growth

between

areaswith

andwithout

sea

urchins.Both

limpets·A

specific

case

of

an

herbivore

limiting

distributionofafoodspecies:

Removal

and

AdditionOnly

urchins

removedOnly

limpets

removed

Control(both

i

ts

p

ent)August

Februarysdreanmperchinsabundance

near

Sydney,Australia.In

areas

adjacentto

a

control

site,eitherthe

urchins,the

limpets,or

bothwere

removed.CONCLUSIONRemovingboth

limpets

and

urchins

resulted

inthe

greatest

increase

ofseaweed

cover,indicatingthatbothspecieshavesomeinfluenceon

seaweed

distribution.But

since

removing

only

urchins

greatly

increasedseaweedgrowthwhileremovingonlylimpetshad

littleeffect,Fletcher

concluded

that

sea

urchins

have

a

muchosi

n

r

awweheelbi

thpet

rcwhein

e

par

dsent,easseaontewlmgrAgreatereffectthan

limpets

in

limitingseaweeddistribution.Removing

bothlimpets

and

urchins

orremoving,only

urchinscinocvre

sder

ea

i

aelelydCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings20-0Augustor

where

only

limpets100806040-Seaweedcover(%were

removed.and

urchins

removed海草覆蓋度Limpet帽具Sea

rc

inFigure

50.8February1983198319821984Abiotic

Factors(非生物因子)·

cis

t

thinact

l

f

ct

the

distribution

of—

Temperature

(

溫

度

)一

Water

(

水

)—

Sunlight

(

日

光

)一

Wind(風)—

Rocksand

soil

(

巖

石

輿

土

壤

)eeuamayorsmsfacanotirgbioACopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·Environmentaltemperature—

|lsanimportant

factor

in

the

distribution

of

organismsbecauseofits

effects

onbiologicalprocessesTemperatureCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·Wateravailabilityamong

habitats—

Isanotherimportantfactor

inspecies

distributionCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsWater·Light

intensityandquality——

C|(

anaffect

photosynthesis

inecosystems·

Light—

Isalso

importanttothedevelopmentandbehavioroforganismssensitivetothephotoperiod

(

光

週

期

)SunlightCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings●

WindAmplifiestheeffectsoftemperatureonorganismsby

increasing

heatlossdue

toevaporation(

蒸

發(fā)

作

用

)andconvection(對

流

)

—

Canchangethemorphology

of

plantsCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsFigure50.9Wind·

ri

r

s

n

o

h

imalsthatfeedupon

them-Physicalstructure(物理結構)-

pH

(

酸

齡

度

)—Mineralcomposition(

礦物

組

成

)aneethtthustil

limidsaoftsncatiplisbution

ofcharactedisManRocksand

SoilCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings·

Fourmajorabioticcomponents

make

up

climate

Temperature,water,sunlight,andwind·

Climate—

ls

the

prevailing

(盛行的/流行的)weather

conditionsinaparticularareaCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsClimateMacroclimate

and

microclimate

(

巨

氯

候

輿

微氯候)·

Cli

mate

patternscan

bedescribedontwoscales

Macroclimate(巨氟候),patternsonthe

global,regional,and

local

level

Microclimate(微氯候),veryfinepatterns,suchasthoseencountered

bythecommunityoforganisms

underneathafallen

logCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsGlobal

Climate

Patterns·

Earth'sglobalclimate

patterns—Aredetermined

largelybythe

inputofsolar

energyandthe

planet'smovement

inspaceCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsLowangleofincoming

sunlight低角度的入射日光Sunlightdirectlyoverhead日光正位於頭頂上方Lowangleofincoming

sunlight低角度的入射日光AtmosphereLatitudinal

variationinsunlightintensity

·Sunlight

intensityplaysa

majorpart

indetermining

the

Earth'sclimatepatternsNorth

Pole

北

極60°N30°NTropicofCancer0°(equator)Tropic

of

Capricorn30°S60SSouth

pole

南

極Figure50.10.Latitudinalvariationandsunlight

intensityCopyright2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsConStanttiltof

23.5°九月秋分September

equinox:

Equatorfacessundirectly;neitherpoletilts

toward

sun;all

regions

on

Earth

experience12hours

ofdaylight

and

12

hours

ofdarkness.六月夏至Junesolstice:

NorthernHemisphere

tilts

toward

60°Nn

0°(equator);nereisphinsinemgiebsHnbegimmerter;hseurnrtnwiNosuSeasonalvariation

insunlight

intensityMarch

equinox:

Equator

faces

sundirectly;neither

poletiltstowardsun;all

regions

on

Earth

experience

12hours

of

daylight

and

12

hours

ofdarkness.December

solstice:Northern

Hemisphere

tiltsaway

from

sun;winterbegins

in

NorthernHemisphere;summerbegins

in

SouthernHemisphere.地球因其軸的傾斜造成溫度輿光強度

隨地球環(huán)繞太陽而週期性變化Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

Cummings十二月冬至三月春分Figure

50.10Southern

Hemisphere.因加熱而移動的空氯在赤道兩側座生三

個主要的空氯循環(huán),在每一個循環(huán)胞內

,上升的空氯質(藍色)以降雨方式釋出

水氯，而下降的空氯(褐色)則吸收水氯

,産生乾燥的環(huán)境。Globalaircirculationandprecipitation

patterns·Aircirculationandwind

patternsplaymajor

partsindeterminingthe

Earth'sclimatepatternsCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings全球氯流循環(huán)Figure50.10Globalaircirculationandprecipitation

patternsGLOBAL

WIND

PATTERNS

全

球

風

型

式ArcticCiro

北極圈30N0°(equator)30S60SAntarcticCircle

南

極

圈西

風

帶

Westerlies東

h

季

屬NortheasttradesDoluny息SoutheasttradesFigure

50.10CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingas

Benjamin

Cummings東南季屬西W風es帶terlies帶Regional,Local,andSeasonal

Effectson

Climate·Various

features

ofthe

landscape-Contributetolocal

variationsinclimateCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsOceansandtheircurrents,and

theclimateofnearby

terrestrial2.Aircools

athighelevation.3.Coolerairsinksover

waterFigure50.11.Moderatingeffectsoflargebodies

ofwateron

climate.ThisCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings

.

slaini

aonvde,re

alat

irngrisingwarmairover

land.飛large

lakesmoderateenvironments1.Warm

airoverland

rises.figure

illustrateswhat

happensonawarmsummerday.BodiesofWater

aonags海岸山脈Figure50.12.Howmountainsaffect

rainfall.Copyright

C2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsMountains

·

Mountainshave

asignificant

effect

on

Rainfal1.As

moistairmoves

in

off

the

PacificOceanandencountersthewesternmostthrive

here.Theamount

of

sunlight

Local

temperature2.Fartherinland,precipitationincreasesagainasthe

airmoves

upandover

highermountains.Someoftheworld'sdeepestsnow

packsoccurhere.風

向

WinddirectionSierra

Nevadamountains,itflows

upward,coolsat

higheraltitudes,and

rr

o

,t

w

os

otds,dalwleosnt

oflsret'ouecarhel3.OntheeasternsideoftheSierra

Nevada,there

is

littleprecipitation.Asaresult

ofthisrainshadow,much

ofcentral

Nevada

isdesert.reachingPacific

Oceanan

area一

East

Seasonality

(

季

節(jié)

性

)·The

angle

of

the

sun

(

太

陽角

度

)-

Leadsto

manyseasonal

changes

in

localenvironmentsCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsSeasonalturnoverin

lakeswithwintericecover

Lakesaresensitivetoseasonaltemperature

changeandExperienceseasonalturnover(

季

節(jié)

性翻轉)

2.In

spring,as

the

sun

melts

the

ice,the

surface

water

warms1.In

winter,the

coldest

water

in

the

lake

(0°C)liesjustoli

°i

aatni

gsti

hbeerl

ltsht

actoifoicl

i

ny

r

ri

dini

lmy

i

etl

,ewxbstewegmnmpsolaaeawmoekndnChl

ul

f

hi

ela;

yrsic

l

g

5si

te

yh

t

w(s

pghr

)

tndde'

iberni

sgit

gt,

ysgu

fna

?)to

the

bottom

waterseOreexonutseaogrr

teteeamr

aoeottrmewtlavyopieaecoasrveseertepelowee

Figure50.13.Seasonalturnoverinlakeswithwintericecover

CopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasBenjaminCummings3.In

summer,the

lake

regains

a

distinctive

thermal

profile,withwarm

surface

water

separated

from

coldbottom

waferby

anarrowvertical

zone

of

rapid

temperature

change,called'athermocline.4.Inautumn,assurfacewatercoolsrapidly,itsinksbelowthe

underlying

layers,remixingthewateruntilthesurfacebeginstofreezeandthewinterO?concentration

HighMediumLow-O?

(mg/L)81624|temperatureprofile

isreestablished.2(mg/8

1281624.O?

(mg/L)0

4

8816241Winter來hermoclineSummerLake

depth(m)lakedepth(m)O?

(mg/L)8Lake

depth

(m)lake

depth

(mSpringAutumn81624●=C12,

Microclimate(微氯候)

·

Microclimate-

Isdetermined

byfine-scaledifferences

inabioticfactorsCopyrightC2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummingsea

r

Current

rangedceli

nn

Predicted

range(a)4.5°Cwarmingover(b)6.5°Cwarmingovernext

centurynextcenturyshioecgabatwteomericmrAoufntheedrarnagnt

50.14eugprCFiLong-Term

Climate

Change(長期氯候變遙)·Onewayto

predictfutureglobalclimatechange.

—

Isto

look

backatthechangesthatoccurredpreviouslyCopyright

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2005

Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

Cummings報告完畢

敬請指教Copyright

C

2005

Pcarson

Education,Inc.p·Concept

50.3:Abiotic

and

biotic

factors

influence·

Varyingcombinationsofboth

biotic

and

abioticfactors-

Determinethe

natureofEarth'smany

biomes·

Biomes

(生物相、生物群落、生物群域)—

Are

the

major

types

of

ecological

associationsthatoccupybroadgeographic

regions

of

land

orwaterthe

structure

and

dynamics

of

aquatic

biomes(水域生物相)Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsThedistributionof

major

aquatic

biomes·

Theexaminationofbiomes(生物相)willbegin

with

Earth'saquaticbiomes30N

TropicofGancerEquatorTropicofCapricorn

300SContihentalshelfO

bebeal

g

iczolCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsKeyLakesCoral

reefsRiversOceanic

pelagiczoneEstuariesIntertidal

zoneFigure50.15●·

Aquatic

biomes(水域生物相)—

Account

for

the

largest

part

of

thebiosphere

intermsofarea-

Cancontainfreshorsalt

water(淡水

或

鹹

水

)·

Oceans

Coverabout75%ofEarth'ssurface—

Haveanenormous

impactonthe

biosphereCopyright

C2005Pearson

Education,Inc.publishing

as

Benjamin

CummingsStratification

of

aquatic

biomes(水域生物相的分眉)·

rsadq

t

ed

b

hta

n

ii

n,

p

r

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bn)

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棲

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o

e

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oligotrophic

lake

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in

Grand

Teton,Wyoming·

Lakes(湖泊)lake(

侵

養(yǎng)

湖

)indelta,BotswanaCopyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsAeutrophic

OkavangoFigure50.17Figure50.17.Okefenokee

National

WetlandReserve

inGeorgia·

Wetlands

(

淫

地

)Copyright

C2005PearsonEducation,Inc.publishing

asBenjamin

CummingsThe

Mississippi

Riverfarform

its

headwatersA

hea