版權(quán)說(shuō)明:本文檔由用戶(hù)提供并上傳,收益歸屬內(nèi)容提供方,若內(nèi)容存在侵權(quán),請(qǐng)進(jìn)行舉報(bào)或認(rèn)領(lǐng)
文檔簡(jiǎn)介
PublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorized
PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10889
UnderstandingtheMainDeterminants
ofTeleworkandItsRoleinWomen’sLabor
ForceParticipation
GabrielaInchauste
MarielCeciliaSiravegna
WORLDBANKGROUP
PovertyandEquityGlobalPracticeSeptember2024
ReproducibleResearchRepository
Averifiedreproducibilitypackageforthispaperisavailableat
,clickherefordirectaccess.
PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10889
Abstract
Thispaperstudiesteleworkasanopportunitytoincreasewomen’slaborforceparticipationinMexico.Usingdataontheavailabilityanduseofinformationtechnologyinhouse-holds,thepapermodelswomen’slaborforceparticipationandworksitechoiceduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.Theresultsshowthatteleworkcanpotentiallyincreasefemalelaborforceparticipation,particularlyamongcollege-edu-catedwomen.Althoughthisisnotthelargestsegmentofwomenoutofthelaborforce,asmanyasoneinfivewomenwithhighereducationremainoutsidethelabormarketinMexico.Inaddition,thefindingsshowthatfamily
conditionsareacleardivideinlaborforcestatusbetweenmenandwomen,whereasage,education,andsocioeco-nomicstatusarenot.Caringforchildrenandlookingaftertheirhusbandsorpartnersseemstobearesponsibilitythataffectswomen’sdecisiontowork.Topromotefemalework-ers’engagementintheworkforce,policiesthatencouragepart-timeandhybridworkarrangements,alongwithwellthoughtoutchildandseniorcareprogramsandaccesstointernetinfrastructureneedtobeconsidered.Overall,bringingtheseworkersintothelaborforcewouldresultinproductivityandgrowthgainsforthecountry.
ThispaperisaproductofthePovertyandEquityGlobalPractice.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat
/prwp.Theauthorsmaybecontacted
atginchauste@andmsiravegna@.Averifiedreproducibilitypackageforthispaperisavailableat
,clickherefordirectaccess.
R
Y
C
I
L
R
A
E
S
E
O
P
H
C
S
TRANSPARENT
P
E
R
W
O
R
K
I
ANALYSIS
A
NGP
ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam
UnderstandingtheMainDeterminantsofTeleworkandItsRoleinWomen’sLaborForceParticipation
GabrielaInchausteandMarielCecilia
Siravegna1
JELclassification:J08,J22
Keywords:laborforceparticipation,home-basedwork,laborforcedecision,careresponsibilities
1WewouldliketothankCarlosRodriguezCastelan,SamuelFreije-Rodriguez,andHugoNopoforhelpfulcommentsandsuggestions.
2
1.Introduction
TheCOVID-19pandemichasincreasedexistinggendergapsinMexico.Women’slaborforceparticipationdroppedmorethanmen’s,andwomen’sre-employmentslowed.AccordingtotheNationalInstituteofStatisticsandGeography(INEGI)inMexico,theparticipationrateinthefirsttrimesterof2020was76.4percentformenand45.1percentforwomen.Oneyearlater,women’sparticipationratedroppedbyalmostfourpercentagepointswhilemen’sdroppedtwopercentagepoints.
2
Atthesametime,approximately1.45millionfemaleworkershadnotreturnedtoworkoneyearlatercomparedwith0.6millionmaleworkers.
3
Socialdistancingmeasures,unanticipatedlockdowns,andthecollapseofin-personschoolinghavemadethepandemicharderforwomen,especiallythosewithhousehold,eldercare,andchildcareresponsibilities.Thesecircumstanceshavetranslatedintoaneedformoreflexibilityforwomeninallaspects.Informationandcommunicationtechnologies
4
haveplayedanessentialroleinincreasingthepossibilitiesforsomeworkerstoworkfromhome.
Teleworkingwascrucialformanywomentokeeptheirincomeandjobsandrelievetheirdoubleburdenofchildcareandhouseholdtasks(Berniell,Gasparini,Marchionni,&Viollaz,2021).DuringtheCOVID-19pandemic,93percentofemployedwomenwhoworkfromhomereportedhavingdonedomesticchorescomparedwith68percentofworkingmen.
5
Thisunequalburdenplaceswomeninaweakerpositionwithinthelabormarket(DominguezV.&BrownG.,2013)andismirroredinlaborforceparticipation,especiallybyagegroup.
Byfacilitatingtelework,workersareprovidedwiththeflexibilitytosettheirworkinghoursandengageinwork-lifebalancearrangements,savingcostandtime.Workingfromhomeinvolvesnotincurringfixedmonetarycosts,
6
suchaspublictransportation,andfixedtimecosts,suchascommutingtime(Edwards&Field-Hendrey,2002).Furthermore,itgivesadditionaltimetotheworkertoreconcileworkandcareresponsibilitiesashomeproductioncouldbedonejointly.
7
Moreover,teleworkcouldbeconducivetochoosingamoreconvenientchildcarearrangement,mainlywhenthereisalackoftrustinthechildcaresystem,asinthecaseofMexico(Muller&Jaen,2020).
AsschoolsstruggledtoreturntonormalduringtheCOVID-19pandemic,remoteworkhasbeenanopportunityformanyfamilieswhenchildcarewasunavailable.ThistypeofworkarrangementdidnothavealegalframeworkinMexicountilDecember2020,whenthegovernmentapprovedArticle311oftheFederalLawofWorktoregulateteleworkingconditions,obligations,andrights.TheHomeOfficelawconsidersactivitiesdoneattheworker’shomeformorethan40percentofthetimeandundertheemployer’sdirection.Aspartofthisagreement,theemployermustprovidetheworkerwithdevices
2Laborforceparticipationin2021Q1was41.7percentforwomenand74.2percentformen(ENOE,INEGI).
3In2020Q1,thenumberofworkerswas33.3millionformenand21.8millionforwomen.In2021Q1,32.7millionmenand20.3millionwomen.
4InMexico,therehasbeenanincreaseintheuseoftheinternetinthelastdecade.AccordingtotheENDUTIH,in2020,72percentofthepopulationusetheinternet.However,93.8percentuseittocommunicate,91percenttolookforinformation,and89percenttoaccessthesocialnetwork.
5INEGI,TelephoneSurveyonCOVID-19andtheLaborMarket(ECOVID-ML)July2020.
6Intheliteratureonlabormarkets,fixedcostsarethosethatdonotvarywiththenumberofhoursapersonworks.
7Apioneeringpaper,Edwards&Field-Hendrey(2002)proposedthatflexibleworkenableswomentobetterintegrateemploymentandfamilyroles.
3
neededtoteleworkandpayfortelecommunicationservicessuchastheinternetandtheproportionalcostofelectricityusedforteleworkpurposes,amongotherbenefits.
8
Onebenefitofteleworkisthepossibilitythatworkerscanbetterbalancethedemandsofpaidemploymentandunpaidhouseholdwork.However,digitalskillsandaccesstotechnologicalequipmentarenotanoptionformanyemployeesinMexico,inparticularwomen.Womenandmendonothavethesameopportunities,uses,andaccesstotechnology.Accordingtothe2020ENDUTIHsurvey,
9
19percentofwomendidnotknowhowtouseacomputerin2020comparedwith15percentofmeninthesamesituation.Moreover,notallMexicanscanaffordthecostofacomputer.Forinstance,onlyone-eighthofwomenknewhowtouseacomputerbutdonothaveaccess,unlikeone-ninthofmen.
10
Inthispaper,weaimtocontributetounderstandingwomen’slaborforceandworkplacedecisionsinemergingeconomiesbystudyingthecharacteristicsofteleworkersinMexicoduringtheCOVID-19pandemic,distinguishingbetweenbeinganemployeeorbeingself-employed.WeusedatafromtheNationalSurveyonAvailabilityandUseofInformationTechnologyinHouseholds(ENDUTIH)carriedoutin2020toestimatetheextenttowhichteleworkcaninfluencelaborsupplydecisions.Weestimatetheprobabilityformenandwomentochoosebetweenfivestates:outofthelaborforce,workingon-sitesalaried,workingon-siteself-employed,teleworkingsalaried,orteleworkingself-employedusingamultinomialframework.
Ourpaperdiffersfromearlierempiricalworkonworkplacechoice
11
asitfocusesontelework,adoptinganarrowerdefinitionofworkingathome,whichconsidersusingcomputersforworkathomeanddiscriminatesbetweenself-employedandsalariedworkers.Moreover,thispaperadoptsamicroperspectivetounderstandwhatcharacteristicsdeterminetelework.Wearguetherearetwofactorsatplay:first,theexistenceoffixedcoststoworkingon-site,andsecond,thepossibilityofengaginginthejointproductionofincomeandhouseholdwork.
Inaddition,wecontributetotheliteraturebyconsideringnotonlythemonetaryandtimecostsofworking,butalsothepotentialemotionalcostsofgoingtoworkandleavingachildorlovedoneinthecareofothers.Previousliteraturedidnotconsidertheemotionalcoststhatworkersmayfeelwhenleavingtheirdependentstosomeoneelse’scare,includingguilt,anxiety,anduncertainty.Muller&Jaen(2020)showevidencethatthesefeelingsarisefromsocialgendernormsandaffectwomen’sdesiretoworkinfavorofcaringfortheirchildren.Asaresult,laborforceparticipationdecisionsshouldaccount
8Thislawgivesemployees9newrights:(1)receiveequipmentnecessarytoperformthejob(computer,ergonomicchairs,printers,amongothers),(2)receiveworkandsalarypaymentinatimelymannerandonstipulateddates,(3)receivecompensationforthecostsderivedfromworkingathomesuchasinternetandelectricityservicecharges,(4)mechanismsthatpreservethesecurityofinformationanddatausedbyworkers,(5)therighttodisconnectattheendoftheworkingday,(6)balanceofworkandfamilyresponsibilities,(7)receivetraining,(8)receivesocialsecurity,and(9)genderperspectivesthatreconcilepersonallifeandavailabilityofworkers.
9NationalSurveyonAvailabilityandUseofInformationTechnologyinHouseholds,ENDUTIH2020,undertakenbyINEGI.
10Thesetoftechnologicalskillsisdifferentforwomenandmenacrossthesamelevelofeducation.Womenatthecollegelevelhavesimilarorgreatercompetenceinallthecapacitiesrelatedtodigitaltechnologies,butthatisnottruewithmorecomplexcomputerskills.Forexample,abilitiessuchascreatingaspreadsheetorgeneratingandusingadatabasearemainlydominatedbymeninallthedifferentlevelsofeducationENDUTIH(2020).
11Earlierworkhaddefinedalltypesofhome-basedwork,withoutfocusontheimpactoftelework(DominguezV.&BrownG.,2013).
4
forthetrade-offbetweenwomen’scareeraspirationsandtraditionalgenderrolesassociatedwithmotherhood.
Inthiscontext,wetesttheimplicitassumptionthatteleworkisanattractiveoptionforwomenwhofacehighfixedcostsofworkingawayfromhome.
12
Ourresultsshowthatwomenwithhighereducationaremorelikelytojointlygeneratehousehold(i.e.,carefordependents)andworkproductionwhenworkingfromhome,providinganincentivetoremaininthelaborforce.Thiseffectismostsignificantforcollege-educatedwomen,thushavingthepotentialtoencouragehighlyproductivewomentoparticipate.Notsurprisingly,collegeeducationisconnectedtoahighreductionintheprobabilityofstayingathome.Interestingly,amongmen,thecaseissimilarregardingteleworkingbutnotregardingstayingathome.Indeed,wefindthatfamilycharacteristicsdividethelaborforcestatusbetweenmenandwomen,whereasage,education,andsocioeconomicstatusdonot.Almostallwomenarelesslikelytoparticipateinthelabormarketiftherearechildreninthehouseholdoriftheyaremarried/partnered;whereasallmeninthesegroupsaremorelikelytoparticipateunderthesecircumstances.
Teleworkcanhelpwomenwithdependentsstayinemploymentandpotentiallyincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationandoveralllaborproductivity.Teleworkingcouldhelpwomenwithsmallchildrenandcollegeeducationtokeepworking,butoncechildrenareabove3yearsold,educationdoesnotmaketeleworkingmorelikely.Indeed,wefindthatteleworkisnotasubstituteforreliablechildcare,soadditionalpoliciesonthisfrontareneeded.Withtheseinsights,theuseofteleworkshouldbeseenasatoolforworkplaceflexibilitythatcansupportwomenwithcaregivingresponsibilities.Ithastheadvantageofeliminatingthetimerequiredtocommuteandexpandingwomen’schoicesfordependentcare,suchason-sitecarecentersaswellashome-basedsupervisionorchildcarearrangements,whichmaybemorecost-effectiveorconvenientforthefamily.
Thispaperisstructuredasfollows:Section2reviewstheexistingliteraturerelatedtoworkfromhomeandgender.Section3presentsthetheoreticalframeworkusedtoexplainwomen’schoicesrelatedtowhereandhowtowork.Section4detailsthedataandexplainstheempiricalmethodology.Section5presentstheresultsofthemultinomialmodelforwomen,andwecomparedthemwithmen.Section6brieflydiscussesthepolicyimplicationandconcludes.
2.RelatedLiterature
Theincreaseintheuseofinformationtechnologyinthelastdecadehasshapedthelabormarket.Oneexampleofthatisteleworking.Thisworkarrangementenablespeopletoworkfromhomeandthepossibilityofcombiningworkwithhomeresponsibilities.DuringtheCOVID-19pandemic,thegovernment-mandatedlockdowninevitablybroughtnegativeconsequencestothelabormarket,whilehavingmorepronouncedeffectsonwomenasschoolclosuresheightenedtheirhouseholdresponsibilities.Forinstance,46percentofwomenreporthavingexperiencedanincreaseinchildcareresponsibilitiesduringthepandemiccomparedto30percentofmen(WorldBankHighFrequencyHouseholdSurvey,2021).Throughoutthattime,teleworkmayhavebeentheeasiestwaytocarefor
12Edwards&Field-Hendrey(2002)explainthattheattractivenessisgivenbythepossibilityofcombiningunpaiddomesticworkwithgainfulhome-basedemployment.
5
childrenwhilesimultaneouslygeneratingincome,particularlyforhouseholdswithinternetaccessandinoccupationsamenabletoremotework.
HeggenessandSuri(2021)studytheimpactofchildcareresponsibilitiesonmotherswhoteleworkintheUnitedStates.Theycomparehowmothers’laborforceparticipationdecreasedrelativetoprime-agewomenwithoutchildrenandprime-agecustodialfathers.Theyfindthatflexibleworkhelpstoincreasewomen’slaborsupply.AsBaruch(2001)remarksinhispaper,teleworkingenlargestheemployer’slabormarketasmorepeoplecanbehired(i.e.singleparents,secondearnerswithchildren,peoplewholiveinremoteplaces,etc.).Moreover,inanotherquantitativestudy,Baruch(2001)foundthatteleworkingwastheonlyoptiontoworkforworkingmotherswithyoungchildrenathome.ChungandvadderHorst(2018)findthataflexiblearrangementforwomenafterchildbirthhelpsthemsustaintheiremploymentstatus.
Inthesameline,Bernieletal.(2021)usemicrodatafromtheWorldBank’shigh-frequencyphonehouseholdsurveydata(HFPS)toanalyzethefactorsthataccountfortheasymmetricimpactoftheCOVID-19inLatinAmerica.Theylookatheterogeneitiesbyoccupationsandconstructpotentialworkfromhomemeasuresforeachindividualtoestimatedifferentlaboroutcomes.Inlinewithpriorstudies,theyfindthattheimpactoftheCOVID-19shockwasharderforwomen,buttheabilitytoworkfromhomemitigatedtheadverseeffect,particularlyforwomenwithchildren.ApossiblemechanismbehindtheirresultsisthatwomeninLatinAmericancountriesaremorelikelytoberesponsibleforfamilyandhomecare;therefore,theyaremorelikelytostayathometocareforthechildrenfollowingschoolclosures.Indeed,theyalsofoundevidencethatwomenwhowereabletoworkfromhomeweremorelikelytokeeptheirjobs.
Concerningtheeffectoftheinternetonwomen’slaborforceparticipation,Dettling(2017)findsapositiveimpactofhigh-speedinternetuseonthelaborsupplydecisionsofmarriedwomenbyabout4.1percentagepoints.Thisconclusiondoesnotholdformenorsinglewomen,forwhomhigh-speedinternetdoesnothaveanimpactontheirlaborsupplydecisions.
Beyondtheuseofteleworktorefertothedecisionofwhereandhowtowork;thereisamuchlongerliteraturethatconsiderstocostsandbenefitsofparticipatinginthelabormarketasthebasisforwomen’sdecisiontowork.Forinstance,Cogan(1981)analyzesthelaborsupplyfactorstoexplainthedesirednumberofhoursapersonwillchoosetowork.Heshowsthatthefixedcostsofworkingarewhypeoplechoosetoworkveryfewhours.Usingdatafromthe1967NationalLongitudinalSurveyonMatureWomen,heconsideredmarriedwomenbetween30to34yearsoldandconsideredvariablessuchasthenumberofyoungchildren,husband’searnings,andindividualcharacteristicssuchasthelevelofeducationandage.Hefindsthepresenceofchildrenraisesfixedcostsbyaboutone-third.
Cogan(1981)’soriginalideaoffixedcostshasbeenmodifiedbyEdwardsandField-Hendrey(2002)todistinguishhome-basedwork.TheyusedatafromthePublicUseMicrodataSamples(PUMS)tomodelwomen’sdecisionsonlaborforceparticipationandtheworkplaceintheUS,takingintoaccountspecificworkertypes,suchasself-employedandemployees.Theyfindthatwomenwhohaveahighcostofworking(i.e.,livinginaruralarea,havingyoungchildren,etc.)haveahigherprobabilityofworkingfromhomeandbeingself-employed.
Inthispaper,weuseEdwardsandField-Hendrey’s(2002)frameworktostudythecharacteristicsofworkerswhowereabletoteleworkinMexicoduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.Fromanefficiencypointofview,wearguethatthebenefitsoflesstimeandmoneyspentcommutingandmoretimewiththefamilyaffectworkers’decisionsonwhereandhowtowork.Ourpapercomplementstheliteraturethatexamines
6
flexibilityasatoolthathelpsworkerstoremaininthelabormarketusingthetheoreticalframeworkofthefixedcostofworking.Asteleworkingdoesnotfitalltheskillslevels,weproviderelevantevidencetocharacterizewomenwhomaybethebestfitforteleworkingconsideringdifferenttypesoffixedcostsintheirdecisionofhowandwheretowork.
3.TheoreticalFramework
Neoclassicalmodelsputforwardtworeasonsthatexplainwhymenandwomendecidetoworkfromhome:(i)thereisafixedcostwhenworkingon-site,and(ii)itispossibletoengageinthejointproductionofworkandhouseholdoutputs(Rani&Unni,2009;Edwards&Field-Hendrey,2002).
Fixedcostsofworkingmayvaryacrossindividualsandcanbeclassifiedintothreetypes.Thereare“timefixedcosts”suchasthelossofleisureorhouseholdproductionactivitiesduetocommutingtime,“monetarycosts”suchasthepricepaidforworkclothing,childcare,ortransportation,andlastly,“emotionalfixedcosts”suchasthestressassociatedwithhavingajob,leavingalovedonesuchasachild,adisabledorelderlyfamilymemberinsomeoneelse’scare,andthestressassociatedwithnotbeingabletofulfillbothworkandhouseholdresponsibilities.
WestartbyfollowingEdwardsandField-Hendrey(2002),whomodifiedtheCogan(1981)modeltoexplainworkers’decisiontoworkathome,on-site,oroutofthelaborforce.Theirmodelconsidersthefixedcostsofworkingiftheemployeedecidestoworkon-siteandajointhouseholdproductionfunctioniftheworkerdecidestoundertakehome-basedwork.Forexample,theycookandcareforyoungchildrenoranolderadultwhileworkingremotely.
Thehigherthefixedcoststhepersonfaces,thehigherthereservationwage.Forinstance,forsomewomen,thefixedcostscouldbehighenoughtochoosetostayathomeandoutofthelaborforce.Thetheoreticalmodelisillustratedin
Figure1
,whereL*representsthetotaltimeavailable,thenonlaborincome
13
isN,FCTandFCMrepresentthetimeandmonetarycostofworkingon-site,respectively.WeaddemotionalcostasFECtothemodelfollowingMuller&Jaen(2020)findingsforMexicoCity.Weassumethatindividualsmaybewillingtopayanamountofmoneytoreduceorlimitthesecosts.Fromthispointofview,emotionalcostsaremodeledasalumpsum.Inaddition,inlinewithEdwardsandField-Hendrey(2002),wetreatthechoiceofemployeeorself-employmentastheoptiontochoosebetweentwowageoffersineachworksite(oneforbeinganemployeeandtheotherforself-employed,selectingthehigherofthetwoalternatives).
13Examplesofnon-laborincomeareinvestmentsandtransfersincomeamongotherincomesthatarenotacquiredinthelabormarket.
7
Figure1:Modeloflaborsupplybytheworksite
Source:EdwardsandField-Hendrey,2002
Inaddition,weassumethatwomenwhoworkfromhomehavealowerreservationwagethanwomenwhoworkon-site,inlinewithlowerfixedcosts.ThelatterassumptioncomesfromCogan(1981),whodemonstratesthatthefixedcostsofworkingraisesthereservationwagecomparedtotheabsenceoffixedcosts.
14
AsEdwardsandField-Hendrey(2002)explain,thereisalsoadifferenceinthewageofferedbetweenthesetwotypesofworkplaces.Iftherewerenot,theopportunitysetforon-siteworkwouldbepartoftheopportunitysetforahome-basedposition.
15
WomenwhoteleworkwillreceiveWhplusHasasalary.Thisamountconsiderstheeconomicvalueofhomeproductionperhourofworkingfromhome,H(EdwardsandField-Hendrey,2002).Atthesametime,womenwhoworkon-sitereceiveWosalary.Givenlowerfixedcostswhenworkingfromhome,thewageofferedWhwillbelowerthanthewageofferedforworkingon-site(Wo)toelicitthesameamountoflaborsupply.Then,theirindifferencecurvemapwilldeterminewhichsegmentofthebudgetconstraintABCDtheymaylocateand,therefore,theirchoicerelatedtohowandwheretowork.
Theoptimalchoiceiswhentheindifferencecurveofthewomanistangenttothebudgetconstraint.ThispointcouldbelocatedatpointB,wherethewomen’schoiceistobeoutofthelaborforce,andshedoes
14Inaddition,Winkler(2020)explainsthatthereservationwageisthewageatwhichapersoniswillingtoenterthelabormarket,whichinturnisaffectedbythepresenceofchildreninthehouseholdandtheavailabilityofmarketsubstitutesforhouseholdproduction.Dominguez&Brown,(2013)notethatwomenworkingfromhomecombinehouseholdresponsibilitieswiththeirmarket-basedemploymentjob,leadingtoalowerreservationwagethanforemploymentoutsidethehome.
15Inorderforthistobetrue,thefixedcostofremoteworkhastobelowerthanon-sitework.Inaddition,(Edwards&Field-Hendrey,2002)mentionsthattherearefactorsthatimplyalowerwageofferforhome-basedworkerssuchasnoallthejobscanbedoneathome.Additionally,employersmaybelievethatthemarginalproductoftheworkerscouldbelowergiventhefewerinteractionsamongcolleaguesandthelackordifficultyofmonitoring.
8
notsupplyanyhoursofwork.IftheutilityfunctionistangenttoanypointonthesegmentCD,thedecisionwillbetoworkon-siteandteleworkingforthesegmentBC.
Basically,thedifferencebetweenon-siteworkandteleworkingisthepresenceoffixedcostsassociatedwithworkingon-siteandthepossibilityofgettingsomehouseholdworkdonewhileteleworking.ThefixedcostsareshownintheslopeofthelineDE.Thehigherthefixedcost,thefurthertotheleftwillbethesegmentcorrespondingtoworkingon-site(DC).ThejointproductionisshownintheslopeofthelineFB;thehigherthejointproduction,thefurthertotherightwillbethesegmentCBassociatedwithhome-basedwork.
Givenourmodel,weexpectthatwomenfacinghigherfixedcostsaremorelikelytoworkfromhomeorstayoutofthelaborforce.Thenthequestionis,whatcharacteristicsmakeawomanmorelikelytoteleworkinsteadofbeingoutofthelaborforce?Weaimtoshedsomelightonthisquestionintheempiricalexercisediscriminatingbetweenself-employedandsalariedworkers.Workersmaydifferintheircharacteristicssuchasmotivation,abilityorentrepreneurialaptitudeandthereforetheirdecisiontoworkfromhomeoron-site.
Theprecedinganalysisfocusesonthesupplyoflabor,ignoringthefactthattheremaybenodemandforat-homeworkforsomeoccupations.Theevidenceshowsthattherearedifferentdemandsforteleworkacrosssectors
16
andoccupations.
17
Thereisagroupofworkerswhowillbeunabletoworkremotelyeveniftheywantedit.Workersinsectorslikeservices,retailtrade,andwholesale,maynothavetheoptiontoworkon-site.Moreover,somefirmcharacteristicsmayexplaintheneedforon-siteand/orhome-basedworkers.Giventherequirementsofface-to-faceinteraction,digitalaccess,andthetechnologyintensityoftheproductionprocess,
18
firmscanadoptteleworkifaminimumleveloftechnologicalandorganizationprovisionsaremet(Tokarchuk,Gabriele,&Neglia,2021).
Ingeneral,firmswithemployeesthataremoreskilledandwithgreaterexperiencearemorelikelytouseteleworking.AccordingtoBrussevich,Dabla-Norris,&Khalid(2020)Mexicohasthelowesttele-workabilityscoresmakingMexicanworkersmoreeconomicallyvulnerable.Forinstance,ahighshareofworkerswithlow
溫馨提示
- 1. 本站所有資源如無(wú)特殊說(shuō)明,都需要本地電腦安裝OFFICE2007和PDF閱讀器。圖紙軟件為CAD,CAXA,PROE,UG,SolidWorks等.壓縮文件請(qǐng)下載最新的WinRAR軟件解壓。
- 2. 本站的文檔不包含任何第三方提供的附件圖紙等,如果需要附件,請(qǐng)聯(lián)系上傳者。文件的所有權(quán)益歸上傳用戶(hù)所有。
- 3. 本站RAR壓縮包中若帶圖紙,網(wǎng)頁(yè)內(nèi)容里面會(huì)有圖紙預(yù)覽,若沒(méi)有圖紙預(yù)覽就沒(méi)有圖紙。
- 4. 未經(jīng)權(quán)益所有人同意不得將文件中的內(nèi)容挪作商業(yè)或盈利用途。
- 5. 人人文庫(kù)網(wǎng)僅提供信息存儲(chǔ)空間,僅對(duì)用戶(hù)上傳內(nèi)容的表現(xiàn)方式做保護(hù)處理,對(duì)用戶(hù)上傳分享的文檔內(nèi)容本身不做任何修改或編輯,并不能對(duì)任何下載內(nèi)容負(fù)責(zé)。
- 6. 下載文件中如有侵權(quán)或不適當(dāng)內(nèi)容,請(qǐng)與我們聯(lián)系,我們立即糾正。
- 7. 本站不保證下載資源的準(zhǔn)確性、安全性和完整性, 同時(shí)也不承擔(dān)用戶(hù)因使用這些下載資源對(duì)自己和他人造成任何形式的傷害或損失。
最新文檔
- 2《我學(xué)習(xí) 我快樂(lè)》第2課時(shí) 教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)-2024-2025學(xué)年道德與法治三年級(jí)上冊(cè)統(tǒng)編版
- 《十進(jìn)制計(jì)數(shù)法 》(教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì))-2023-2024學(xué)年人教版四年級(jí)數(shù)學(xué)上冊(cè)
- 上海軟件技術(shù)服務(wù)合同模板
- 冰淇淋經(jīng)銷(xiāo)合同模板
- 臺(tái)風(fēng)搶險(xiǎn)合同模板
- 包廠外包加工合同模板
- 廠房股轉(zhuǎn)讓合同模板
- 卷門(mén)購(gòu)銷(xiāo)合同模板
- 倉(cāng)儲(chǔ)水泥租賃合同模板
- 合伙店轉(zhuǎn)讓合同模板
- 2024年列車(chē)員技能競(jìng)賽理論考試題庫(kù)500題(含答案)
- 16《麻雀》 教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)-2024-2025學(xué)年語(yǔ)文四年級(jí)上冊(cè)(統(tǒng)編版)
- 2《我向國(guó)旗敬個(gè)禮》教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)-2024-2025學(xué)年道德與法治一年級(jí)上冊(cè)統(tǒng)編版
- 2024年全國(guó)職業(yè)院校技能大賽中職組(安全保衛(wèi)賽項(xiàng))考試題庫(kù)(含答案)
- 廣東省2023年第一次普通高中學(xué)業(yè)水平合格性考試英語(yǔ)試題及答案
- 2024年聯(lián)通網(wǎng)絡(luò)運(yùn)營(yíng)及線(xiàn)務(wù)運(yùn)維技能競(jìng)賽考試題庫(kù)(多選、判斷題)
- 中國(guó)文化概要智慧樹(shù)知到答案2024年溫州大學(xué)
- Starter Unit 3 Welcome 單元測(cè)試卷2024年秋人教版新教材七年級(jí)英語(yǔ)上冊(cè)
- 2023-2024學(xué)年北京市海淀區(qū)初三二模數(shù)學(xué)試卷(含答案)
- 《物聯(lián)網(wǎng)工程導(dǎo)論》課件 課程導(dǎo)入(1學(xué)時(shí))
- 2023年蘇教版三年級(jí)數(shù)學(xué)上冊(cè)全冊(cè)各單元教材分析、教學(xué)目標(biāo)、教材說(shuō)明等
評(píng)論
0/150
提交評(píng)論