寫(xiě)作與修辭contrast and comparison的用法與比較

1、Development by Comparison and Contrast,Comparison and contrast are two thinking processes we constantly perform in our daily life. We might compare and contrast two cities, two products, two books, two plays or films, etc. although comparison usually indentifies similarities and contrast points out

2、differences, the two are structurally similar and can be discussed together. The purpose of comparing or contrasting is to understand either of the two things more clearly and, at times, to make judgments about them.,Subject-by-subject Pattern,1. stress is caused by daily having to contend with crow

3、ds of people and restricted space. 2.Travel in rush hour can be a real headache. 3. Pollution of various kinds is the result of industrialization. 4. Cars spew toxic fumes into the atmosphere. 5. Noise bellows out from every side.,1. Here the pace of life is gentle. 2. There is time to reflect on th

4、e beauty of the world. 3. In a village,life is closer to nature.The changing seasons can be clearly observed. 4. Ther is ample space for everyone, and fresh air to breathe.,Subject-by-subject Pattern,For Americans a long time may be anything from forty years to forty minutes, depending on the circum

5、stances. To an American businessman a proposal that could be completed within forty years might be too far into the future to be considered. A motorist who gets involved in a traffic accident would be in great trouble with the police if he waited twenty-four hours to report the accident. An hour wou

6、ld be too long a time to be late for a business appointment or a date. Americans are so time-conscious that promptness is not only a virtue; it is an obligation.,Subject-by-subject Pattern,But many other cultures have no such concept of a long time. During W W II, a local truck driver arrived breath

7、lessly at military government headquarters report that a murderer was running loose in his village. Under question he told them the murder had occurred seventeen years earlier and that the murderer had remained unmolested in the village all the time. In a South American city, an American was asked t

8、o present immediately his credentials to a local official and was kept waiting outside his office for almost two hours. For such people, promptness is not only unreasonable but also irritating. They often wonder why Americans make such a fuss about it. To a South Asian person, a long time may be 1,0

9、00years, or even forever.,A. Americans concept of “a long time”: _. Examples: (1)_ (2)_ (3)_ Attitudes to promptness: _ B. Other cultures concepts of “a long time”:_ Examples: (1)_ (2)_ (3)_,Summary,In subject-by-subject pattern, we discuss the two subjects separately, that is to say, we discuss all

10、 of the characteristics of subdivisions of the first subject in the first half and then present all the characteristics of the other in the second half. The aspects examined in the two subjects should be the same and in both parts, we should follow the same logical order for each subject.,Point-by-p

11、oint Pattern,Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. However, life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual than that in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they hav

12、e to go to one of the public parks. On the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but a suburban dweller must go into the city for entertainment.,Summary,

13、In point-by-point pattern, the writer compares and contrasts both subjects item after item. He structures his paragraph around points of comparison instead of subjects, moving back and forth between the subjects. The specifics of both subjects are placed close together for direct and immediate compa

14、rison and contrast, and transitions are often used so as to avoid abrupt switching between the two subjects. The point-by-point pattern works best with subjects that contain a lot of points. It can bring into sharp focus the similarities and differences for the reader to see as he reads along.,A bri

15、ef consideration of Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from one age to the other. The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world; the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people

16、. The Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or terrifying nightmares. The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped. The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture.,The Greeks we

17、re preoccupied with the visible world. They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them. The ancient statues of Apollo, for instance, resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games. Generally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized

18、beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts. They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.,Linking devices,A brief consideration of Egyptian mythology and the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must have taken place from

19、 one age to the other. The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world; the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.,A brief consideration of Egyptian mythology contrasted with the mythology of the Greeks is enough to convince us of the revolution in thought that must ha

20、ve taken place from one age to the other. The Egyptian gods had no resemblance to anything in the real world, whereas the Greek gods were fashioned after real Greek people.,Linking devices,The Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with bir

21、ds bodies or terrifying nightmares. The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped. The Greek interpretation of divinity is not so dark a picture.,The Egyptian artists interpretations of the divine were horrid bestial shapes that combined mens heads with birds bodies or te

22、rrifying nightmares. The monstrosities of an invisible world were what the Egyptians worshiped. The Greek interpretation of divinity stands in opposition to this dark picture.,Linking devices,The Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world. They found their desires satisfied in what they could ac

23、tually see around them. The ancient statues of Apollo, for instance, resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.,The Greeks were preoccupied with the visible world. Unlike the Egyptians, They found their desires satisfied in what they could actually see around them.

24、 The ancient statues of Apollo, for instance, resemble the strong young bodies of athletes contending in the Olympic Games.,Linking devices,Generally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts. They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy t

25、hat they called god.,Generally the Greek artists found their gods in idealized beauty or intelligence of actual human counterparts. In direct contrast to the Egyptians, They had no wish to create some hideous fantasy that they called god.,Summary,Linking words and phrases can indicate contrast and c

26、larify the shift from one side to the other. They play an important role in ensuring a smooth and coherent flow from one subject to another, or from one point to another in paragraphs.,Development by Cause and Effect,At the end of the unit you will: Be able to recognize characteristics and organizat

27、ional patterns of cause and effect in paragraph writing; Be acquainted with relevant linking devices in cause and effect writing; and Be able to write effective paragraphs of cause and effect according to the instructions given,“Cause and effect is regarded as a logical pattern commonly used in expl

28、anation and argumentation, especially when we explore possible connections between an action/event and its outcome, or between causes and results of an event, action.,Sample 1,One of the main complaints of city residents in the US is the lack of parking. This problem is partly caused by all the aban

29、doned cars on the streets. It has been estimated that over one million cars are abandoned on the streets of the cities. Each year, approximately a third of those cars are removed and destroyed. The rest of the cars which are not removed take up parking spaces and make neighbourhood look run-down. A

30、survey shows that,even though the city government of Los Angeles spends about 30 million dollars to tow away and dismantle abandoned vehicles, it is always fighting a losing battle as more and more cars are constantly coming off the producing line. In Boston, on the other hand, the problem has been

31、dealt with by a non-profit governmental agency, which uses the money from the recycling of the mental in the cars to pay for the cost of towing them. The program in Boston sounds good although it has not completely reached financial independence from the federal government yet. Until a truly self-su

32、fficient program for removing old cars is developed, it will remain a serious problem.,Questions,1. What is the topic of the paragraph? 2. What are the organizational characteristics of the paragraph? 3. In what kind of order are the causes presented?,This paragraph is developed around the problem o

33、f “the lack of parking” complained about by US city residents. The paragraph is organised on a pattern of single effect and multiple causes. After the problem is clearly presented at the beginning, the rest of the paragraph is devoted to the exploration of its causes. Altogether three major causes a

34、re discussed, from the obvious fact of the abandoned cars taking up parking spaces to the underlying financial headaches. In this way, the writing shows a logical cause-and-effect pattern, which might consequently attract more concern or efforts in the problems solution.,Causes Over a million cars a

35、re abandoned on the streets. More cars are constantly being produced. Both city governments or governmental agencies have financial headaches.,Effect Lack of parking in cities,Summary,The sample paragraph presents the problem of lack of parking in some of the US cities before it goes on to explore t

36、he causes of the issue. This pattern of organization is single effect vs. multiple causes. In this pattern, you may state the issue, i.e. the effect, right at the beginning, and then guide the reader to track down some important evidence for the causes. The causes can be traced from the most the mos

37、t superficial to the deepest,From the most direct to the most indirect, etc. In the end, it is advisable to suggest some solution to the problem, so that the whole writing has some significance.,Sample 2,Since the terrorists struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the Americans have been won

38、dering how to respond to the frequent official warning that terrorists are planning new attacks in the near future. They feel anxious and panicky because they cant calculate the odds including those of explosives or letters with anthrax. But it is critical that the presidents aides avoid any temptat

39、ion to use security precautions as an excuse for political errors, which was already made somewhere.,There is, of course, the danger that too many warnings could become mere background noise, and that somewhere down the road the public would wind up ignoring the one that really matters. The public c

40、annot judge on a day-to-day basis whether those assessments are being made correctly. But the nation is better off frightened and informed than left happily in the dark.,Questions,What problem is addressed in this paragraph? And in how many aspects is the cause or effect explored? Does this paragrap

41、h come straight to the point of cause or effect about the issue? Does it follow the same pattern as Sample 1? If not, what are the differences?,1. The problem addressed refers to the issue of terrorist attacks. This issue has brought about at least three major aspects of consequence or effect. The p

42、aragraph addresses the cause rather than effects right at the beginning. No. it follows a pattern of single cause and multiple effects. Unlike Sample 1 in which effect is addressed first and causes are traced backwards, Sample 2 states briefly at the beginning the issue of terrorist attacks as a dir

43、ect issue, and then dwells on three major effects, some factual and some predicted.,Effect 1,Effects 2,Effects 3,Summary,You may have noticed the difference in organization between Sample 1 and Sample 2. In Sample 2 the writer briefly presents the issue of terrorist attacks as a direct cause, and th

44、en dwells upon three major effects, from the matter-of-fact to something predicted. This is called the single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern. As is observed, the writer structures his paragraph mainly around points of effects instead of causes,Summary,Reasoning along the logical sequence of event

45、s. Like Sample 1, transitions are also used so as to avoid abrupt idea development. The single-cause-and-multiple-effect pattern works best with issue that turn out to be far-reaching or influential. It can bring into sharp focus the relationship between causes and effects of an issue under discussi

46、on.,Development by classification,In life, we always find examples of classification and division. Food, drinks, clothes, animals, plants, people, teachers, books, etc. Can all be classified in various ways for ease of understanding. In this unit, we are going to study the features and organization

47、patterns of classification and the use of relevant linking devices.,Sample 1,The time most students spend studying for a test can be divided into three distinct phases. Phase One, often called the “No problem” phase, runs from the day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before t

48、he dreaded exam is passed out. During Phase One, the student is carefree, smiling and enjoying life as usual. When asked by classmates if he has studied for the test yet, his reply will be an assured “No problem”. During Phase One, no actual studying takes place.,Phase Two is entered two days prior

49、to the test. It is sometimes referred to as the “Tomorrow” phase, since students often reply to questions with the statement, “Ill study tomorrow.” During Phase Two, again, no actual studying takes place, but he is considering it. Phase Three, the final phase, is entered twelve hours before “Zero Ho

50、ur.” This is the actual phase, characterized by sweaty palms, nervous twitches(抽筋), and confused mental pattern. Phase Three is also termed the “Shock” phase since the students is shocked to discover the imminent nature of the exam and the amount of material to be studied. He will probably be unable

51、 to sleep and will mumble meaningless phrases. This phase will not end until the exam is over.,Complete the outline according to the organization of Sample 1,Subject: the time most students spend studying for a test Topic sentence: The time most students spend studying for a test can be divided into

52、 three distinct phases. Division 1)Phase One runs from the day the test is announced to approximately forty-eight hours before the exam is passed out. 2)Phase two is entered two days prior to the test. 3)Phase three ,the final phase ,is entered twelve hours before “Zero Hour.,Sample 2,Students in ou

53、r school fall into three groups according to their different intentions of taking part in sports. Many students go to the playground when they feel tired after a few hours of study. These students put much more emphasis on their study efficiency than on the fun of sports. They just want to go back t

54、o their classrooms from the playground with clearer ad quicker mind. Thus they dont actually care whether they can enjoy themselves on the sports ground or not. Students that make up the second group are real sports lovers. Sometimes they even put aside their study for a game. They take part in the

55、sport that interests them most, no caring whether it is most beneficial to their health.,Sample 2,The third group want s beauty from sports. Boys want to become strong; girls want to be slim and graceful. Those who consider sports the only way of reducing weight also belong to this group. They are v

56、ery carefully choosing the kind of exercise they do, and they are afraid that certain sports may ruin their figures. No matter which group they belong to, they all benefit form sports.,Questions,What is the topic sentence? What is the subject classified? How many groups has it been divided into? Are

57、 the groups arranged in the same order as in Sample 1? If not, in what order are they arranged?,Answers,In Sample 1 groups are arranged in time order; while in Sample 2, groups are arranged in the order of degree, i.e. from the less specific and strong intention to more specific and stronger ones.,o

58、utline,Topic sentence: students in our school fall into three groups according to their different intentions of taking part in sports. Division : 1) students who go to the playground when they feel tired after study. 2) real sports lovers who even put aside their studies for a game. 3) students who

59、want beauty from sports Concluding sentence: No matter which group they belong to, they all benefit form sports.,Summary,A paragraph of classification usually consists of a topic sentence, a body, and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence has a clar subject and indicates the number of categories into which you are going to classify the subject. The bod