宏觀語用學(xué)-言語行為理論.ppt

6.3 Macropragmatics 宏觀語用學(xué),Speech act theory The Cooperative Principle(CP) The politeness Principle(PP),一. 二. 三.,Speech act theory 言語行為理論 1.Illocutionary actsilkju:nri 2.Classification of illocutionary acts 3.Indirect speech acts,1.Illocutionary acts(言外行為) ilkju:nri,Basically,they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things,it is often used to“do things“,to perform acts.,Proposed by A.L.Austin Developed by J.R.Searle,Searle 約翰羅杰斯希爾勒,For example:,If you work in a company where the boss has the overwhelming power,then the boss utterance is more than just a statement.,You are fired.,This utterance can be used to perform the act of ending your employment.,I hereby name this ship Red Flag.,Actions performed via utterances are called speech acts and in English these acts are commonly given more special labels,such as apology,complaint,compliment，invitation, promise or request.,In all these cases above,the uttering of the relevant words itself;without the utterance the action is not done.These are called performative sentences and the verbs used are called performative verbs.,I promise to be there at nine oclock.,I apologize.,It is argued that even non-performative sentences are use to perform acts. For instance:In saying “Its such a fine day today.“ someone may be performing the act of suggesting an outing.,.,an outing,So it is claimed that all sentences, in addition to whatever they mean,perform specific actions or “do things“through having specific forces. Austin suggests three basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something and three kinds of acts are performed simultaneously.,Three kinds of actions: (1) Locutionary act(言內(nèi)行為):the act of saying,the literal meaning of the utterance; (2) Illocutionary act(言外行為):the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning; (3) Perlocutionary act(言后行為):the effect of the utterance on the hearer,depending on specific circumstances.,(一) “以言指事” (locution)-說話本身及由此而產(chǎn)生的語義學(xué)意義； (二) “以言行事”(illocution)-用話來做事或傳遞交際意圖； (三) “以言成事”(perlocution)-說話后改變世界和產(chǎn)生效果。,Its stuffy in here.,There isnt enough fresh air in here. A request of the hearer to open the window. The hearers opening the window or his refusal to do so.,Locutionary act Illocutionary act Perlocutionary act,What speech act theory is most concerned with is illocutionary acts.It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.It also designed to show cohereence in seemingly incoherent conversations.,Husband:Thats the phone. Wife:Im in the bathroom. Husband:Okay.,A refusal to comply with the requested and issuing a request to her husband to answer the phone instead.,2.Classification of illocutionary acts (1) Representatives (2) Directives (3) Commissives (4) Expressives (5) Declarations,(1)Representatives (闡述類) Those kinds of speech acts that state that the speaker is committed in various ways to the truth of the statement.Statemens of fact,assertions,and descriptions.,a. The earth is flat. b. It was a warm sunny day. c. Chomsky didnt write about music.,In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world(of belief).,(2)Directives （指令類） Those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do something.They express what the speaker wants.They are commands,orders,requests,suggestions, begging and pleading.They can be positive or negative.,a. Give me a cup of tea.Make it black. b. Could you lend me a pen,please? c. Dont touch that.,In using a directive,the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words(via the hearer).,(3)Commissives （承諾類） Those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to commit himself to some future action.They express what the speaker intends.They are promises,threats,pledges. They can be performed by the speaker alone,or by the speaker as a member of a group.,a. Ill be back. b. Im going to get it right next time. c. We will not do that.,In using a commissive,the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words(via the speaker).,(4)Expressives （表達類） Thoses utterances stating that the speaker expresses an attitude about the situations,They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure,pain,likes,dislikes,joy,or sorrow.They can be caused by something the speaker does or the hearer does,but they are about the speakers experience.,a. Im really sorry! b. Congratulations! c. Oh,yes,great,mmm,ssahh!,In using an expressive,the speaker makes words fit the world(of feeling).,(5)Declaration （宣告類） Those utterances that the speaker uses to change a situation .In the following examples,the speaker has to have a special institutional role ,in a special context ,in order to perform a declaration appropriately.,a. Priest :I now pronounce you husband and wife. b. Referee :You are out! c. Jury Foreman ：We find the defendant guilty.,In using a declaration ,the speaker changes the word via words.,a) Jane: Cocos sick. Steve: Ill take her to the vet. b) Mike: Whats the weather like in London? Annie: Its raining. c) Carmen: Youve thrown away the paper. Dave: Im sorry. d) Ed: The garage is a mess. Faye: Clean it up!,In each of the following dialogues, decide whether the second speakers utterance is a representative, a commissive, a directive, an expressive or a declaration,representative,expressive,directive,commissive,Indirect speech acts (間接言語行為) direct speech act: the conventionally expected function. indirect speech act: the extra actual function.,間接言語行為理論 (theory of indirect speech acts，Searle 1969, 1975, 1979)是直接言語行為和會話含義的組合理論。Searle 認為，人有時有話不直接說，是出于禮貌等原因，比如說 Can you pass me the salt? 就比直接說 (I request that you) pass me the salt. 來得委婉。,Requests are often performed indirectly.Their indirectness has certain characteristics that tend to group requests into the following types:,Group1:Sentences concerning the hearers ability to do something. a. Can you pass me the book over? b. Could you type this paper for me ?,Group2:Sentences concerning the speakers wish or want that the hearer will do something. a. I would like you to write this down. b. I would appreciate it if you could do it for me. c. Id rather you didnt do that any m