實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法.doc

實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法I. 概論(Conspectus) p1一、語(yǔ)法的組成部分：1.詞法(Morphology)2.句法(Syntax)3.What to learn in the course of English Grammar? Please attach importance to three main points: grammatical, logical, acceptable.1) Grammatical Which one is (ones are) ungrammatical?(1) There are many ways to kill (skin) a cat.(2) There are more ways than one to kill a cat.(3) Theres more ways than one to kill a cat. (4) Here are some keys.(5) Heres some keys.(6) There is more ways than one to kill a cat. 2) LogicalWhich one is illogical?(1) A gorilla squished the cockroach. (2) A chimpanzee stomped the roach to death.(3) An ant has swallowed the elephant.3) Acceptable (sometimes ungrammatical or even illogical)(1) They asked me all kinds of / all types of / all sorts of / all manner of questions.(2) As sure as eggs are / as eggs is eggs.(3) A friend of mine is moving into a new house / moving into a new flat / moving house / moving flats. 二、詞類（Parts of Speech / Word Class） p2另外：限定詞(Determiner) p2三、句子定義 p5 四、句子成分 p6另外：同位語(yǔ)(Appositive)， 插入語(yǔ)(Parenthesis)， 呼語(yǔ)(Vocative)， p6補(bǔ)充：主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)(Subject Complement)，e.g. (1) The floor should be kept clean. (2) He was elected mayor last year.賓語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)(ObjectComplement)e.g (1) We should keep the floor clean. (2) We elected him mayor last year.五、句子分類(Classification of Sentences) p6-81按目的分類：p6-7, 6511）陳述句(Declarative Sentences / Statements)，2）疑問(wèn)句(Interrogative Sentences / Questions)，3）祈使句(Imperative Sentences / Imperatives)，補(bǔ)充：注意下面陳述句與祈使句，含有主語(yǔ)的肯定與含有主語(yǔ)的否定祈使句的比較：(p318)(1) Someone opens the door. / cf. Someone open the door, please. OR Someone open the door.(2) Go ahead! / You go ahead! / cf. Dont forget to mail the letter. / Dont you forget to mail the letter. 4）感嘆句(Exclamatory Sentences / Exclamation)2. 按結(jié)構(gòu)分類：p7簡(jiǎn)單句(Simple Sentences)，并列句(Compound Sentences)，復(fù)合句(Complex Sentences)3. 疑問(wèn)句分類：p7-8一般疑問(wèn)句(General Questions)，特殊疑問(wèn)句(Special Questions)，選擇疑問(wèn)句(Alternative Questions)，附加疑問(wèn)句(Tag Questions)補(bǔ)充：4. 附加疑問(wèn)句分類：(p238-239)反意疑問(wèn)句（Disjunctive Questions），共感疑問(wèn)句（Sympathetic Questions），準(zhǔn)反意疑問(wèn)句（Quasi-disjunctive Questions）1) 反意疑問(wèn)句是指陳述部分與附加部分各自采取否定或肯定相反的謂語(yǔ)形式的問(wèn)句。2) 共感疑問(wèn)句是指陳述部分和附加部分都采取謂語(yǔ)的同一肯定或否定形式，這種附加疑問(wèn)句通常不要求對(duì)方回答（句末多用降調(diào)）故可稱為修辭性疑問(wèn)句。這類附加疑問(wèn)句可帶有So、Oh等詞。3) 準(zhǔn)反意疑問(wèn)句的謂語(yǔ)形式與反意疑問(wèn)句的相同，但附加部分的主語(yǔ)與陳述部分的主語(yǔ)卻不一致。5. 附加疑問(wèn)句應(yīng)注意的若干問(wèn)題(p239-250)1) 意義是“有”的附加疑問(wèn)句形式： 當(dāng)have (had)表示“有”的意義時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)句可以用have (had)，也可以用do (did)。但是，如果陳述部分是否定式，那么附加疑問(wèn)用have (had) 還是用do (did) 要與陳述部分保持一致。A 肯定句B 否定句2) 意義不是“有”的附加疑問(wèn)形式：當(dāng)have (had) 表示其它行為動(dòng)作意義時(shí)，只能用do (did)。3) 陳述部分帶have (had) to：當(dāng)陳述部分帶have (had) to時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)可用have (had) 或do (did)，但以do (did)為常見(jiàn)，尤其在否定句中，不宜用have (had)。A 肯定句B 否定句4)陳述部分的謂語(yǔ)是have sth. done：當(dāng)陳述部分的謂語(yǔ)是have sth. done時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分要根據(jù)陳述部分的時(shí)態(tài)來(lái)決定其恰當(dāng)?shù)男问健?) must表示推測(cè)意義：當(dāng)must表示推測(cè)意義時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的形式必須根據(jù)must之后的不定式、時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)選用相應(yīng)的動(dòng)詞形式。must之后是be就用be的一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)(am, are, is)，若是帶有具體過(guò)去時(shí)間的不定式完成式就用一般過(guò)去時(shí)助動(dòng)詞(did)，如果是沒(méi)帶具體過(guò)去時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)的不定式完成式就用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)助動(dòng)詞(have, has)。6)表示否定猜測(cè)：表示否定猜測(cè)（從應(yīng)試角度來(lái)說(shuō)）不宜用mustnt be而要用cant be。附加疑問(wèn)部分的形式必須根據(jù)cant之后的不定式、時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)選用相應(yīng)的動(dòng)詞形式。cant之后是be就照用can，若是帶有具體過(guò)去時(shí)間的不定式完成式就用一般過(guò)去時(shí)助動(dòng)詞(did)，如果是沒(méi)帶具體過(guò)去時(shí)間的不定式完成式就用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)助動(dòng)詞(have, has)。 7)陳述部分帶used to：當(dāng)陳述部分帶used to時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)可用use(d)nt或didnt，在口語(yǔ)里多用didnt。8) 陳述部分帶need：當(dāng)陳述部分帶need時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分要與陳述部分need的詞性保持一致。即need是情態(tài)動(dòng)詞就用need，若need是實(shí)義動(dòng)詞就用do / does (did)。A 情態(tài)動(dòng)詞B 實(shí)義動(dòng)詞9)陳述部分是肯定祈使句：當(dāng)陳述部分是肯定祈使句時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分可以有兩種形式，可根據(jù)語(yǔ)氣選用will you, wont you, would you, can you, cant you, could you, why dont you等。如用please 加上will you或would you可使語(yǔ)氣更加緩和。但是，當(dāng)陳述部分是否定句時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分不宜用否定形式，常用will you或can you。A 肯定句B 否定句10) 陳述部分帶有否定意義的詞：當(dāng)陳述部分帶有否定意義的詞時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)的謂語(yǔ)總是用肯定形式。這類否定意義的詞常見(jiàn)的有seldom, hardly, scarcely, barely, rarely, never, little, few, nobody, no one, no等。11) 陳述部分帶有否定前綴：當(dāng)陳述部分帶有否定前綴的詞時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的謂語(yǔ)總是用否定式。12) 陳述部分是I am ：當(dāng)陳述部分是I am 時(shí)，可用正式的英語(yǔ)形式am I not，也可用口語(yǔ)體的英式英語(yǔ)arent I，或美式英語(yǔ)aint I。aint I原為教育程度不高的人之用語(yǔ)，但現(xiàn)已用得相當(dāng)普遍，尤其在美國(guó)，許多受過(guò)良好教育的人也用aint I于疑問(wèn)句里。13) 以引導(dǎo)詞There開(kāi)始的句子：附加疑問(wèn)部分重復(fù)用there。14) 以指示代詞This, That, These, Those作主語(yǔ)的句子：附加疑問(wèn)部分的主語(yǔ)不能重復(fù)前面的代詞This, That, These, Those，而要根據(jù)單、復(fù)數(shù)意義選用it或they。 15)動(dòng)詞不定式短語(yǔ)、動(dòng)名詞短語(yǔ)、介詞短語(yǔ)、從句等作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)：以動(dòng)詞不定式短語(yǔ)、動(dòng)名詞短語(yǔ)、介詞短語(yǔ)、從句等作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的謂語(yǔ)形式一般都是與主句的對(duì)應(yīng)相反，附加疑問(wèn)的主語(yǔ)一律用it。16) one作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)：以one作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的主語(yǔ)可用正式語(yǔ)體one，在非正式語(yǔ)體里，英國(guó)英語(yǔ)用you，美國(guó)英語(yǔ)既可用you也可用he。如果在前面的陳述部分中已經(jīng)用了he 或his，那么在后面的附加疑問(wèn)里只能用he。17) one作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)：以Each of / Every one of作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的主語(yǔ)可用he強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)體，或用they強(qiáng)調(diào)全體。當(dāng)陳述部分的限定范圍是you或 us時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分必須對(duì)應(yīng)使用you或we。但是，以everything作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的主語(yǔ)用it而不宜用they。18)不定代詞作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)：以不定代詞everybody (everyone), anybody (anyone), nobody (no one), none作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的主語(yǔ)既可用he，也可用they，但在現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)中一般都傾向于用they，盡管用they與數(shù)的原則不一致。19)強(qiáng)調(diào)句作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)：以強(qiáng)調(diào)句作陳述部分的主語(yǔ)時(shí)，附加疑問(wèn)部分的主語(yǔ)照用it。II. 構(gòu)詞法（Word Building / Word Formation）p11-40一、構(gòu)詞法的類型1.轉(zhuǎn)化(Conversion)，2.派生(Derivation)，3.合成(Compounding)，4.截短(Clipping)，5.混成/混合(Blending)，6.縮寫 (Abbreviation)7.反轉(zhuǎn) (Backformation) 二、現(xiàn)代主要構(gòu)詞法 1.合成(Compounding) （p33-38）補(bǔ)充例詞： keyboard online offline update upgrade homepage download upload cybercaf website input output2.混成/混合(Blending) （39-40）補(bǔ)充例詞： netizen (internet +citizen) blog (web + log) webcam (web + camera) staycation (stay + vocation) orature (oral + literature) liger (lion + tiger) tigon (tiger + lion) universiade (university + olympiad) emoticon (emotion + icon) ringxiety (ringtone + anxiety) agritainment (agriculture + entertainment)glocal (globe + local)modem (modulator + demodulator)3.縮寫 (Abbreviation) p40 (p60-61)1）縮合詞 Initialism (p40)補(bǔ)充例詞： WPS (Word Processing System) P-P (Plug and Play) OS (Operation System) GPS (Global Positioning System) DIY (Do It Yourself) EMS (Express Mail Service) GDP (Gross Domestic Product) ROK (the Republic of Korea) DPRK SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization)2）縮拼詞 Acronyms (p40)補(bǔ)充例詞： neet (Not educated, employed, trained) BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) VAT (Value Added Tax) SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) ECFA (Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement) ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)III. 名詞 Nouns p42一、 一、三類集體名詞的單、復(fù)數(shù) p44 (p282-284) 1.只用單數(shù)謂語(yǔ)的集體名詞 p44（p282） 2.只用復(fù)數(shù)謂語(yǔ)的集體名詞 p45 (p282)3.可用單、復(fù)數(shù)謂語(yǔ)，但意義或強(qiáng)調(diào)點(diǎn)有一定改變的集體名詞 p44 (p282-284)二、表示“1”個(gè)群體量詞 p47-48, p133-135補(bǔ)充：a pack of wolves / dogs / hounds / hoodlums / fools / thieves / liesa swarm of ants / bees / flies / mosquitoes / insects / students / peoplea shoal (school) of fish / shrimps / whales / porpoises (dolphins) a flock of sheep / goats / chickens / ducks / geese / birds / sparrows / parrots / birds / sparrows / parrotsa flight of wild geese / swallows / swans補(bǔ)充：三、比較a heap of, a stack of, a pile of (p83)表示零亂的一堆用heap，整齊的一堆用stack，中性意義的一堆用pile。四、合成詞的復(fù)數(shù)形式 p52-53 (p65)合成詞從單數(shù)變復(fù)數(shù)的一般原則是將主要成份，即表示“人”的意義部分變?yōu)閺?fù)數(shù)，如果分不出哪個(gè)成份重要，就將末詞變成復(fù)數(shù)。五、單、復(fù)數(shù)同形的名詞 p53-54 (p62-63)1.無(wú)論單、復(fù)數(shù)意義總用單數(shù)形式的名詞p53，(p62)two / one aircraft (hovercraft, spacecraft, sheep, fish, bison), 補(bǔ)充：head, yoke, dozen, score注：用復(fù)數(shù)時(shí)則表示籠統(tǒng)數(shù)量。2.無(wú)論單、復(fù)數(shù)意義總用復(fù)數(shù)形式的名詞p54，（p63）a / two species (means, works) 補(bǔ)充：barracks, headquarters, crossroads, lazybones, series, the newlyweds (可指一對(duì)或若干對(duì)新婚夫婦）六、名詞所有格 p56-61 (p68-70)1.模糊關(guān)系（主動(dòng)/被動(dòng)）(p68)2.部分與整體關(guān)系(與of屬格連用) p60 (p68)補(bǔ)充：（非部分與整體關(guān)系）(3) Do you know the name of the girl standing at the gate? /Do you know the girls name standing at the gate?(4) the king of Spains daughter = the Spanish kings daughter(4) Might I ask for a photo of Mr. Strakov? p244(5) This is a photo of Smith. / cf. This is Smiths photo. This photo is Smiths. This is a photo of Smiths.3.強(qiáng)調(diào)情感 p60，88，94，(p69)補(bǔ)充：4.并列名詞所有格 (p69)表示各自所屬關(guān)系時(shí)，要在各個(gè)限定名詞后用所有格。如表示共同的屬性，則僅將最后的限定名詞變成所有格。5.復(fù)合名詞所有格 (p69)(1) He is my brother-in-laws friend.(2) They are my two brothers-in-laws friends.6.不定代詞 + else的所有格 (p70)七、名詞作定語(yǔ)與形容詞作定語(yǔ)的區(qū)別 p65 （自學(xué)）一般原則：名詞表示“材料或本身屬性”，形容詞表示“描繪性”。IV. 冠詞 Articles p66-81 (p71-75)一、概說(shuō)，冠詞的基本用法，各類名詞前的冠詞用法，不用或省略冠詞的情況 （自學(xué)）二、類指 p69, (p72-73)類指是指不定冠詞、定冠詞和零冠詞都可以表示某一類人或物，常能通用。注：但是，有時(shí)還要考慮邏輯或事實(shí)是否合理，因此有時(shí)不能通用。補(bǔ)充：表示誕生或滅亡時(shí)只用定冠詞加單數(shù)名詞例外：(6) Man cant live without air.V. 代詞Pronouns p82-122 (p72-73)一、代詞的分類（九類） p82 (自學(xué))1. 人稱代詞 (Personal Pronouns)2. 物主代詞 (Possessive Pronouns)3. 自身/反身代詞 (Self Pronouns) / (Reflexive Pronouns)4. 相互代詞 (Reciprocal Pronouns)5. 指示代詞 (DemonstrativePronouns)6. 疑問(wèn)代詞 (Interrogative Pronouns)7. 連接代詞 (Conjunctive Pronouns)8. 關(guān)系代詞 (Relative Pronouns)9. 不定代詞 (Indefinite Pronouns)二、部分代詞用法比較1.相互代詞 each other, one anotherp91-92 (p75-76)2.疑問(wèn)代詞 which, whop96-97 (p76)補(bǔ)充：3.不定代詞 p107-122 (p78-82)1) everyone (everybody) / every one; anyone (anybody) / any one 的用法比較 (p78)everyone (everybody) 和anyone (anybody) 只能指人不能指物，可用、也可不用介詞短語(yǔ)作定語(yǔ)（但of介詞短語(yǔ)除外，即不能用of介詞短語(yǔ)）；every one或any one指人時(shí)必加上of短語(yǔ)；指物時(shí)可加、也可不加介詞短語(yǔ)。2) no one (nobody) / none; p109nothing / none的用法比較 (p79)no one (nobody) 指人不指物，可用或不用介詞短語(yǔ)作定語(yǔ)（一般不用No one + of短語(yǔ)，但是There is no one of but 的句式表示雙重否定除外）。none可指人或物，可加或不加of介詞短語(yǔ)。 注1：none作主語(yǔ)時(shí)，如果指可數(shù)名詞，其謂語(yǔ)形式可用單或復(fù)數(shù)。若指不可數(shù)名詞則謂語(yǔ)形式用單數(shù)。此外，如果后面有一個(gè)比較范圍，則要根據(jù)被比較對(duì)象的數(shù)概念來(lái)決定其謂語(yǔ)形式。注2：在回答who提問(wèn)時(shí)要用no one或nobody, 回答其余的問(wèn)題則用none；若回答what提問(wèn)則用nothing，而回答其它問(wèn)題就用none。p1093) each / every的用法比較(p80)each指兩個(gè)或以上概念，every指三個(gè)或以上概念；each強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)性，every說(shuō)明共性。 補(bǔ)充：三、both 的正確用法 (p80-82)1.保持平衡2.避免冗語(yǔ)(1) The twins both appeared in the film. (2) The twins appeared together in the film. (3) The twins both appeared together in the film. X)3.不改搭配(1) Both his brother and his sister are painters. (2) His brother as well as his sister are painters.(3) Both his brother as well as his sister are painters.4.注意位置 p117-118，（p81-82）both在be動(dòng)詞、助動(dòng)詞之后，在行為動(dòng)詞之前。如果帶有否定詞not，則both位其后并表示部分否定。5.合乎邏輯(1) Both proposals (Either proposal) will have my support. / Both of us are (Either of us) is willing to help you.(2) You may park your car on either side (on both sides X) of the avenue before you enter the convention and exhibition hall. 6.both與all的區(qū)別四、another, other, the other p119-120VI. 數(shù)詞與量詞 Numerals and Quantifiers p123-136 一、基數(shù)詞(Cardinal Numerals)與序數(shù)詞(Ordinal Numerals)（自學(xué)）二、不定冠詞加序數(shù)詞的用法 p127 (p83) 表示意料之外、計(jì)劃外或無(wú)可奈何的次數(shù)要用不定冠詞加序數(shù)詞。三、分?jǐn)?shù)詞 Fractional Numerals p129-1301. Numerator being 1, its denominator is of singular form. cf. one-fifth, one-seventh2. Numerator being two or over, its denominator is of plural form. cf. two-thirds, five-ninths四、數(shù)量詞 Quantifiers p133-135(Already mentioned above)VII. 動(dòng)詞概說(shuō) The Generality of Verbs p137-178一、動(dòng)詞的種類 1.及物動(dòng)詞 Transitive Verbs2.不及物動(dòng)詞 Intransitive Verbs3.兼有及物和不及物的動(dòng)詞 Ergative Verbs4.雙賓動(dòng)詞 Ditransitive Verbs5.成語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞（短語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞）Phrasal Verbsp147-152 / cf. 動(dòng)詞短語(yǔ) Verbal Phrases (Verb Phrases) p339-340 (p92)6.系動(dòng)詞 Link Verbs (Copulas Copulae)7.助動(dòng)詞和情態(tài)動(dòng)詞 Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Verbs補(bǔ)充：二、系動(dòng)詞appear、look、seem的用法比較 p153, 156, 158 (p84-90)1.共同點(diǎn) (p84-88) （自學(xué)）2.不同點(diǎn) (p88-90)1）可用appear to be或seem to be加名詞作表語(yǔ)，但不用look to be加名詞作表語(yǔ)。如有形容詞修飾名詞，也可以省略to be。2）如果表示主觀意愿，只用appear而不能用look或seem。3）常說(shuō)look like，seem like，幾乎不說(shuō)appear like。4）appear, seem之后可跟that引導(dǎo)的從句，但不用look引導(dǎo)that從句。to me或that均可以省略。5）appear, seem可后跟to do（或to have done），但不用 look to do（或look to have done）。6）有appear (seem) not 正式語(yǔ)體，也有not appear (seem) 非正式語(yǔ)體的形式。7）appear, seem 通常不用進(jìn)行時(shí)，而look可用，但用進(jìn)行時(shí)一般不宜與不定式連用。8） look后可直接加年歲或基數(shù)詞age, years，thirty, seventy等，但appear，seem不宜。9）appear, seem 可與there連用，但look不能。10）appear, look側(cè)重從外觀、外表看起來(lái)像，而seem主要是根據(jù)說(shuō)話人的自身經(jīng)驗(yàn)、感想等看起來(lái)像。11）常用seem而不是appear或look來(lái)表示說(shuō)話人自身的感覺(jué)，除非是自己想要在表面上刻意表現(xiàn)出來(lái)，或表面上像但其實(shí)不然，這時(shí)要用appear。VIII. 時(shí)態(tài) Tenses p173-174, 179-219 (p98-113)一、時(shí)態(tài)的概念與種類 p1731.時(shí)間：現(xiàn)在、過(guò)去、將來(lái)、過(guò)去將來(lái)2.行為：一般、進(jìn)行、完成、完成進(jìn)行二、時(shí)態(tài)的名稱與時(shí)態(tài)的時(shí)間不一致的用法 p181-190(p98-100)1.一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表示過(guò)去 p181-182 球賽解說(shuō)、劇情介紹、書信材料、標(biāo)語(yǔ)通告、圖片說(shuō)明等內(nèi)容常用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表示過(guò)去行為動(dòng)作。p2642.一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)表示將來(lái) p182-183, p193 按預(yù)先規(guī)定、計(jì)劃安排或時(shí)間表要進(jìn)行的事件，無(wú)論口、筆語(yǔ)均可用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。3.現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)表示平時(shí) p188-189，60 現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)與always, constantly, forever, perpetually連用表示平時(shí)的情況時(shí)，一般是表達(dá)說(shuō)話人的某種態(tài)度或情緒，但是，那未必是事實(shí)。三、be going to do、be to do、be about to do、be due to do的用法比較p192-195 (p100-101)補(bǔ)充：四、現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)since從句或短語(yǔ)的正確理解，即現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)含有since從句或短語(yǔ)所表示的行為狀態(tài)的終止性或延續(xù)性 (p104-105)since作連詞引導(dǎo)狀語(yǔ)從句，無(wú)論該從句的謂語(yǔ)是終止性動(dòng)詞、還是持續(xù)性動(dòng)詞的過(guò)去時(shí)，或since作介詞引導(dǎo)名詞短語(yǔ)，since從句或since短語(yǔ)所指的時(shí)間意義通常都表示該動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)的結(jié)束而不是延續(xù)到現(xiàn)在。換句話說(shuō)，1）since之后如跟終止性動(dòng)詞，則按字面原意理解，即終止；2）如跟表示時(shí)間概念的名詞或數(shù)詞，則表示開(kāi)始；3）如跟事件名詞、地點(diǎn)名詞、4）持續(xù)性動(dòng)詞、狀態(tài)動(dòng)詞，則均表示結(jié)束，這時(shí)往往都從“否定方面或原義反面理解”。 （李永生實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法疑難解析p35-36; 顏鈺英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法難點(diǎn)例解p17-18，p277; 薄冰英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法指南p391, 407-408, 817-818; 趙振才英語(yǔ)常見(jiàn)問(wèn)題解答大詞典p1293, 1295；陸谷孫英漢大詞典p1870；牛津高階英漢雙解詞典 p1632）1.since之后跟終止性動(dòng)詞，按字面原意理解。2.since之后跟表示時(shí)間概念的名詞或數(shù)詞，則表示從此開(kāi)始。(1) He has always loved labor since childhood. 他從童年起就一直熱愛(ài)勞動(dòng)。(2) I have known him well since we were boys together. 我們從小在一起以來(lái)，我就很了解他。(3) Nobody has seen him since last week. p208(4) I have changed my address since last year.(5) Shes been off work since Tuesday.(6) Ive been wearing glasses since I was three. 我從三歲起就一直戴眼鏡。(7) I have known him since 1976. 我從1976年起就認(rèn)識(shí)他了。3.since之后跟事件名詞, 表示該事件已結(jié)束；跟地點(diǎn)名詞，表示已離開(kāi)該地點(diǎn)。(1) He has lived here since World War Two. 自從第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束以后，他一直住在這里。(2) I havent eaten anything since breakfast. 自早餐以后我還沒(méi)吃過(guò)任何東西。注1：如果要表示該事件“開(kāi)始”，則要用上since the beginning (the start) of e.g. He has lived here since the beginning (the start) of World War Two.(3) I havent had a taste of that dessert since New York. 自離開(kāi)紐約后，我就沒(méi)有嘗過(guò)這種甜食了。(4) Hes been working in a bank since (leaving) school.4.since之后跟持續(xù)性動(dòng)詞或狀態(tài)動(dòng)詞, 表示該行為或狀態(tài)已結(jié)束。注2：在since引導(dǎo)的狀語(yǔ)從句中，如果謂語(yǔ)是持續(xù)性動(dòng)詞的完成時(shí)（特別是動(dòng)詞為be時(shí)），那么所表示的動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)就意味著延續(xù)而不是已經(jīng)結(jié)束。p205五、與現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)有關(guān)的幾個(gè)主要謂語(yǔ)形式及其意義has (have) gone to、has (have) been to、has (have) been in、It is the first time sb. has done p205-206 (p107-108) / cf. It was the first time sb. had done p212補(bǔ)充：注意just now所用的時(shí)態(tài)：(107)Just now可用于現(xiàn)在時(shí)或過(guò)去時(shí)，但不用于現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。六、現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)與現(xiàn)在完成進(jìn)行時(shí)的區(qū)別 p208-209 從完成性和連續(xù)性兩方面進(jìn)行比較七、表示愿望未實(shí)現(xiàn)所用的時(shí)態(tài)、句式p201, 212, 254-255, (p101, 109-110, 139)1.was (were) about to do.when.p2012.was (were) to have done. but.p2543.具有愿望意義的動(dòng)詞如hope、intend、mean 、think、expect、plan、wish、desire 、long、want、suppose等用于過(guò)去完成時(shí)。p212e.g. had hoped to do補(bǔ)充：4. 具有愿望意義的動(dòng)詞如hope、intend、mean 、think、expect、plan、wish、desire、long、want、suppose等用于過(guò)去時(shí)+完成不定式（英）。 (p109-110)e.g. hoped to have done5. intend 和mean用于過(guò)去時(shí)+一般不定式 (p110)e.g. intended to do, meant to do八、時(shí)態(tài)的呼應(yīng)與不呼應(yīng) p217-219 (p111-112, p287)補(bǔ)充：九、let alone (much less、still less、even less)之后接的動(dòng)詞形式 (p112-113)let alone (much less, still less, even less) 之后接的動(dòng)詞形式要與前面句子最后的動(dòng)詞形式保持一致，其意義等同“to say nothing of (not to speak of) + 名詞或動(dòng)名詞”。 注1：若let alone后接的動(dòng)詞與前面句子最后的動(dòng)詞一樣，通常將其略去。注2：let alone后接的名詞結(jié)構(gòu)部份要跟前面句子的主語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)保持平衡一致。IX. 被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài) Passive Voicep220-235 (p113-117)一、被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的基本形式 p220 be + 過(guò)去分詞二、被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)常用時(shí)態(tài)p176, 223-224 主要用于除了“將來(lái)進(jìn)行時(shí)”和“過(guò)去將來(lái)進(jìn)行時(shí)”以外的12個(gè) 時(shí)態(tài)。即通常沒(méi)有這兩種形式： will be being done would be being done三、帶情態(tài)動(dòng)詞的被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu) p225e.g. can / could / may / might be+ done四、各種非謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞的被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu) p229-232e.g. to be done being done get done / become done 注：在不影響理解的前提下，口語(yǔ)中常見(jiàn)以主動(dòng)形式代替被動(dòng)形式。e.g. He asks the price of land per one square meter to buy (to be bought). 五、被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)使用的前提 p232-234補(bǔ)充：六、被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的幾個(gè)問(wèn)題(p113-117)1.雙賓主動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)變?yōu)楸粍?dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)具有雙賓的主動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)變?yōu)楸粍?dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)，既可將間接賓語(yǔ)（對(duì)象）、也可將直接賓語(yǔ)（內(nèi)容）變成被動(dòng)句的主語(yǔ)，但前一種情況居多，即將間接賓語(yǔ)變?yōu)楸粍?dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)的主語(yǔ)，而將直接賓語(yǔ)保留下來(lái)作句子的主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)（稱為保留賓語(yǔ)Retained Object)。1）間接賓語(yǔ)（對(duì)象）直接賓語(yǔ)（內(nèi)容）(1) Most schools award the best students scholarships. （主動(dòng)）(2) The best students are awarded scholarships.（被動(dòng)，間賓變主語(yǔ)）(3) Scholarships are awarded to the best students.（被動(dòng)，直賓變主語(yǔ)）2）動(dòng)詞賓語(yǔ)，介詞賓語(yǔ)(1) Most schools award scholarships to the best students. （主動(dòng)）(2) Scholarships are awarded to the best students.（被動(dòng)，動(dòng)賓變主語(yǔ)）2.假主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)Pseudo Active Voice (p90-91, 116-117) 有些句子的形式是主動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)但意義卻是被動(dòng)，有語(yǔ)法學(xué)家稱之為假主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)（Pseudo Active Voice），也可將此類形式看作是一種系表結(jié)構(gòu)。這類句子所用的動(dòng)詞多為wash, iron, write, sell, cut, clean, lock, translate, wear, play, start, peel, cook, keep, burn, last, read, feel, taste, open, shut, close等。X. 虛擬語(yǔ)氣 Subjunctive Moodp236-252 (p117-126)虛擬語(yǔ)氣從動(dòng)詞的使用形式上大致分為三大類：一、 一、現(xiàn)在虛擬式 p237-238, p245-250 (p117-118)現(xiàn)在虛擬式指的是使用動(dòng)詞原形的形式。（主要是表示祝福或祝愿、詛咒、發(fā)誓或是其他慣用語(yǔ)）(1) God bless you! / May God bless you! / God save all living things! / May there never be another world war. / Long live the world peace! / Long live the Peoples Republic of China!(2) The devil take you! / May the devil take you! / God forbid!(3) Heaven forbid that I should ever say nasty things about you. 其他慣用法: p248-252注1：從句中可用be；如果不是固定短語(yǔ)或倒裝句，也可用陳述語(yǔ)氣p249；主句均用陳述語(yǔ)氣。 (4) Though he be / is the president himself, he shall hear us. (5) Whether she be / is right or wrong, we will support her. (6) Whatever be the reasons for his action, / Whatever the reasons may be for his action, we cannot tolerate such disloyalty. (7) Be that as it may, we have nothing to lose.(8) Come what may, we will go ahead with our scheme.(9) Let it be so. = So be it. = Be it so. 就這樣吧或那就算了吧。（表示許可或聽(tīng)之任之）/ If you do not wish my friendship, so be it.(10) Home is home be it ever so homely / . though it is ever so homely. (11) Far be it from me to spoil your fun.(12) We suggested that he (should) put off his journey till next Monday afternoon. (13) If need be, well go and have a look. 注2：帶有If need(s) be的主句既可用陳述語(yǔ)氣也可用虛擬語(yǔ)氣。p252e.g. If need be, I can do extra work at the weekend. / If need(s) be, hed go and consult a doctor. 二、過(guò)去虛擬式 p238 (p118-119)過(guò)去虛擬式指的是使用動(dòng)詞過(guò)去時(shí)的形式。（主要是表示愿望或假設(shè)的情況與現(xiàn)在或?qū)?lái)的現(xiàn)實(shí)相反）(1) If only I were not / cf. had not been so nervous. p238補(bǔ)充：注意if only的不同用法A 表示條件“只要”e.g. If only it clears up, well go.B 表示強(qiáng)烈愿望e.g. If only he arrives in time.C 表示與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)e.g. If only Dad could see me now!D表示與過(guò)去事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)e.g. If only you had worked with greater care! / If only somebody had told us, we could have warned you. (2) If I were