語言學(xué)(網(wǎng)絡(luò))課件.ppt

1 Hello everyone Nicetomeetyou 2 1 ContentsofLinguistics 1 ThenatureoflanguageInthebeginning ThedesignoflanguageAnimalcommunicationHumanlanguage endowmentoraccomplishment Language mind andsociallife 3 2 Thescopeoflinguistics ExperienceandexplanationModelsandmapsDimensionsofidealizationLangueandparoleCompetenceandperformanceKnowledgeandability 4 3 Areasofenquiry focusonform Thepatternsofsound phoneticsandphonologySoundsegmentsSyllablesStressandintonationTheconstructionofwords morphologyDerivationandinflectionThecombinationofwords syntaxGrammaticalsystemsconstituentstructure 5 4 Areasofenquiry focusonmeaning Meaninginlanguage semanticsThemeaningofwordsSemanticcomponentsSenserelationsWordsandphrasesMeaningincontext pragmaticsReference force andeffectContextandschemaNegotiationofmeaningRelationsbetweenutterances 6 AConciseCourseonLinguistics Thenotionoflinguistics Phonetics Thenotionoflanguage Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics 7 1 definition Languageisa systemof arbitrary vocal symbolsusedfor HUMANcommunication thenotionoflanguage 8 system elementsinlanguagearearrangedaccordingtocertainrules arbitrary thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingswereferto vocal theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages symbol wordsareassociatedwithobjects actions ideasbyconvention human languageishumanspecific differentfromthecommunicationsystemofanimals 9 beedancing parrotspeaking gibboncalling humanlanguage humanlanguagevs animalcommunicationsystem 1 vocal auditorychannel2 interchangeability3 arbitrariness4 displacement5 productivity6 dualityofstructure 10 2 designfeatures CharlesHockett Arbitrariness nologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds Productivity Humanbeingscanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences Duality lowerlevel astructureofsoundshigherlevel unitsofmeaning 11 Displacement Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker Culturaltransmission Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct 12 1 definitionthescientificstudyoflanguage 2 linguisticsvs traditionalgrammar a descriptivevs prescriptive 3 synchronicvs diachronic Synchronic thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeDiachronic thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime thenotionoflinguistics b spokenvs written c Latin basedframeworkvs universalframework 13 4 languevs parole F deSassure Langue thegeneralizedrulesofalanguageabstract stable socialParole theapplicationoftherulesconcrete changeable individual petencevs performance N Chomsky Competence theidealuser sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances 6 linguisticpotentialvs actuallinguisticbehavior M A K Halliday Linguisticpotential thethingswecansayActuallinguisticbehavior whatweactuallysay 14 7 thescopeoflinguistics 1 generallinguistics A phonetics thestudyofspeechsoundB phonology thestudyofsoundpatternsC morphology thestudyoftheformationofwordsD syntax thestudyoftheformationofsentencesE semantics thestudyofmeaningF pragmatics thestudyofmeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse 2 interdisciplinarybranchessociolinguistics psycholinguistics appliedlinguistics etc 15 16 phonetics thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage 17 Placesofarticulation forEnglish includebilabial labio dental interdental alveolar palatal velar andglottal Mannersofarticulationincludestops fricatives affricates nasals liquids andglides 18 3 consonant definition Thesoundintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract types mannerofarticulation stops fricatives affricates liquids nasals glidesplaceofarticulation bilabial labiodental dental alveolar palatal velar glottal 19 5 Transcription broadtranscription withletter symbolsonlynarrowtranscription withdiacritics definition Thesoundintheproductionofwhichthereisnoobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract 4 vowel types positionofthehighestpartoftongue front central backopennessofthemouth open semi close semi openshapeofthelips rounded unrounded 20 phonology thestudyofsoundsystemandpattern 21 1 Basicconceptsphone phoneme allophone anysoundwehearandproduce donotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning aphonologicalunitofdistinctivevalue differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments 22 2 thephonemetheoryphonemiccontrast minimalpair complementarydistribution twodistinctivephonemesinaphoneticsituation e g p and b in pit and bit twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings e g pillandbill theallophonesofthesamephonemeoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments 23 3 rulesinphonologysequentialrules assimilationrule deletionrule rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage therulethatassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby copying afeatureofasequentialphoneme therulethatgovernsthedeletionofasoundalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented 24 4 Suprasegmentalfeaturesstress tone intonation wordstress import n im port v green house greenhousesentencestress Flyingplanescanbedangerous Flying planescanbedangerous pitchvariations patternsinthespokenformofalanguagewhichareusuallyexpressedbyvariationsinpitch e g Igotthejob 25 morphology thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed 26 1 basicconceptsmorpheme theminimallexicalorgrammaticalunite g care ful re ness thepartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixeshavebeenremoved careincareful root onemorphememayhaveseveralpronunciationsorphonologicalforms Eachisanallomorphofthesamemorpheme e g cats ts dogs z watches iz allomorph 27 affix amorphemewhichisaddedtoaword andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword e g un s ed ful thepartofthewordtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded e g care careless incarelessness derivationalmorpheme inflectionalmorpheme affixesaddedtoawordtocreateanewword e g ness affixesattachedtotheendofawordtoindicategrammaticalrelationships e g ed ing stem 28 free mayformawordbyitselfMorphemebound mustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme freeroot boundrootderivationalaffixinflectional 29 2 subclassificationofwordsopen classwords closed classwords grammatical lexicalwords variable invariablewords themembershipisinfinite e g n v themembershipisfixed e g prep whoseroleislargelygrammatical e g this the whencarriesthesemanticcontent e g book run grammaticallydifferentwordformsarise e g look looks looked lookingnogrammaticallydifferentforms e g since in hello 30 pounds awordwhichiscomposedoftwoormoreroots Features Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory e g n n n landlady Whenthetwowordsareindifferentcategories theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethecategoryofthecompound e g adj n n gentleman Compoundsoftenhavedifferentstresspatternsfromnoncompoundedwordsequences e g hotdog hotdog themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts e g redneckredneck 31 thestudyofhowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences Syntax 32 1 immediateconstituentanalysis ICanalysis LeonardBloomfield divideasentenceintoitsconstituentelementsuntilwereachthesmallestgrammaticalunit themorphemes e g Poor John ran away constituent immediateconstituent ultimateconstituent poorJohn ranaway poor John ran away 33 advantages demonstrateclearlytheinternalstructureofasentence andaccountforambiguities e g more expensive clothes more expensive clothes constituent oneoftwoormoregrammaticalunitsthatentersyntacticallyormorphologicallyintoaconstructionatanylevelimmediateconstituent constituentsdirectlybelowthelevelofaconstructionultimateconstituent thelastlevelofconstituents 34 disadvantages notalwayspossibletocutintotwoparts e g oldmenandwomen oldmenandwomen unabletocutsomediscontinuousconstituents e g lookthewordupinthedictionary notalwayspossibletodemonstrateambiguities e g Flyingplanescanbedangerous 35 Categorythedeterminer Det boynoun n oftenqualifierplaysverb v aDet verydegreeword Deg smallmodifierboyn must should auxiliary Aux and but or conjunction Con 36 phrasecategoryadifficultquestionaboutchemistry specifiers complements nounphrasetheoldestmemberamongustheoldmanandwoman subordinating coordinating verbphrase1 oftendream2 begoingtorain3 willtellastory adjectivephrase1 verylate2 quitegood3 mostbeautiful prepositionalphrasemainlyaboutthisaspect 37 2 thetransformational generativegrammar TGGrammar NoamChomsky generativeaspect agrammarmustgenerateallandonlythegrammaticalsentencesofalanguage transformationalaspect akindofprocessthattransformsonesentenceintoanother deepstructure abstractsyntacticrepresentationsofsentencessurfacestructure sentencesweactuallysay pronounce write 38 PS rules NPNPNPNPNPNPron DetNDetAdjNJohnhe we shea the appletheredapplethis thatNPNPDetNPPNPSastoryabouttheherothepersonwhotalkedtome 39 VPVPVPVPvNPvPPVShittheballspeakaboutthebooksaidthathehadtoldliesVPVP PPPP APAPVAdvVPNPAdvAdjrunfastlookaboutthebookverylittle 40 Deepstructure 1 see Mary John JohnsawMary SNPInflVPNpstVNJohnseeMary 41 transformationalrules 1 Auxiliarymovement Johnwillarrive WillJohnarrive SSCNPInflVPeNwillarriveJohn 42 2 DOinsertionBirdsfly Dobirdsfly SSCNPInflVPNeVbirdsfly do 43 3 WhmovementHeboughtwhat Whatdidhebuy SCSeNPInflVPNpstVNPhedidbuywhat 44 SS NP VP NP Det N VP V NP PS rules Det the a any etc N boy man etc baseV kick throw etc Lexicon thefeaturesofN V etc DS semanticcomponent semanticrepresentations T rules Auxiliarymovement Doinsertion Wh movement SS phonologicalcomponent phoneticrepresentation 45 3 functionalgrammarAsentencemaybeanalyzedfromthefunctionalsideaswellasthegrammaticalside Pragueschool theme rheme thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds whatthespeakerstatesabout orinregardto thestartingpointoftheutterance e g Johnwasthrowingtheball NPVPThisletterwaswrittenbyFather themerheme 46 systemic functionalgrammar M A K Halliday systemic Theuseoflanguageinvolvesanetworkofsystemsofchoices functional Languageisasocialphenomenon emphasizesthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothefunctionsitperforms 47 Languageservesfortheexpressionofthespeaker sexperienceoftherealworld Languageservesfortheestablishmentandmaintenanceofsocialrelations Languagehastoprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused ideationalfunction interpersonalfunction textualfunction 48 semantics thestudyofmeaninginlanguage Allourknowledgehasitsoriginsinourperceptions LeonardoDaVindi 49 1 Whatismeaning namingtheory symbol formreferent word object conceptualistview thought referencesymbol form referentcontextualism Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation use context behaviorism SJillr sJackR 50 2 sevendifferentmeaning G Leech conceptualmeaning denotativecontentconnotativemeaning whatlanguagereferstosocialmeaning socialcircumstancesoflanguageuseaffectivemeaning thefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker writerreflectedmeaning associationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressioncollocativemeaning associationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherwordthematicmeaning thewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis 51 3 senseandreferencesense thecomplexsystemofrelationshipthatholdsbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves concernswithintra linguisticrelationsreference therelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementsandthenon linguisticworldofexperience concernswithinter linguisticrelationse g morningstarandeveningstar samereferencebutdifferentsenses 52 4 senserelationsbetweenwords Synonymy samenessrelationdialectalsynonyms synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects e g fall AmE autumn BrE stylisticsynonyms synonymsdifferinginstylee g gentleman man chapsynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning e g thrifty economical stingycollocationalsynonyms synonymsdifferingintheircollocation e g rottentomatoes addledeggs rancidbacon sourmilksemanticallydifferentsynonyms synonymsdifferingslightlyinmeaning e g quite rather 53 Antonymy oppositenessofmeaninggradableantonymy neutraldomain canbemodifiedbyvery havecomparativeandsuperlativedegree e g new oldcomplementaryantonymy thedenialofonemeanstheassertionoftheother theassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother e g dead aliverelationalopposites pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems e g doctor patient 54 Hyponymy superordinate hyponym co hyponyms thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning thespecificword hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword e g flower superordinate rosetulipcarnationlily co hyponyms 55 homonymy polysemy thecasethattwo ormoremeaningsmaybeassociatedwiththesamelinguisticformhomophony thecasethattwowordsareidenticalinsound e g sun sonhomography thecasethattwowordsareidenticalinspelling e g tear tear thecasethatthesamewordmayhaveasetofdifferentmeanings e g mouth organofbodyentranceofcave 56 ponentialanalysisdiscussionofthemeaningofawordintermsofsemanticfeatures e g man HUMAN ADULT MALE 6 predicationanalysispredication theabstractionofthemeaningofasentenceargument alogicalparticipantpredicate somethingsaidaboutanargumente g Tomsmokes argumentpredicate 57 7 senserelationsbetweensentences synonymy Ifaistrue bistrue ifaisfalse bisfalse e g a Hewasabachelorallhislife b Henevermarriedallhislife inconsistency Ifaistrue bisfalse ifaisfalse bistrue e g a Marylikesthejob b Marydidn tlikethejob entailment Ifaistrue bisnecessarilytrue ifaisfalse bmaybetrueorfalse e g a HehasbeentoFrance b HehasbeentoEurope 58 presupposition contradiction anomaly Ifaistrue bmustbetrue ifaisfalse bisstilltrue e g a Let sstopheretoday b Wehavebeendoingsomething Theinformationinoneargumentisincompatible e g Thismanisfemale Theargument predicateisself contradictory e g theunmarriedman swifeisverybeautiful 8 selectionalrestrictions constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers e g Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously 59 pragmatics thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication 60 1 Pragmaticsvs semantics semantics studiessentence meaning propositionofasentence context independentpragmatics studiesutterance meaning context dependent theproductofsentence meaningandcontext PragmaticsFocusesondeterminingintendedmeaningfromliteralmeaninge g Isthewindowopen maymean Iamcold willyouclosethewindow 61 62 2 speechacttheoryLanguageisnotusedtodescribethings butoftenusedtodothings toperformacts Austin smodel oldmodelconstative statementsthateitherstateordescribeperformative sentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate butoftenusedtodothings toperformacts 63 newmodel Aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking locutionaryact theactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax lexiconandphonology illocutionaryact theactofexpressingthespeaker sintention perlocutionaryact theactperformedbysayingsomething felicityconditions 1 Inparticularsituation 2 aparticularperson3 Thepersonmustbesincere 64 Searl sclassificationofspeechacts representatives statingordescribing sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetruedirectives tryingtogetthehearertodosomethingcommissives committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionexpressives expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstatedeclaratives bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething 65 3 thecooperativeprinciple PaulGrice themaximofquantity makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequiredthemaximofquality donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidencethemaximofrelation berelevantthemaximofmanner avoidobscurityofexpression avoidambiguity bebrief beorderly 66 EXAMPLES 1 Steven Wilfredismeetingawomanfordinnertonight Susan Doeshiswifeknowaboutit Steven Ofcourseshedoes 2 Barbara Iamoutofgas Peter Thereisagasstationaroundthecorner Thewomanheismeetingishiswife maximofquantity maximofrelation 67 4 thepolitenessprinciple GeoffreyLeech tactmaxim minimizecosttoother maximizebenefittoothergenerositymaxim minimizebenefittoself maximizecosttoselfapprobationmaxim minimizedispraiseofother maximizepraiseofother 68 modestymaxim minimizepraiseself maximizedispraiseselfagreementmaxim minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother maximizeagreementbetweenselfandothersympathymaxim minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother maximizesympathybetweenselfandother 69 ThesocialstudyoflanguageTheethnographyofspeakingandthestructureofconversationLocatingvariationsinspeechStyles genders andsocialclass BilingualsandbilingualismSocietalmultilingualismAppliedsociolinguistics Sociolinguistics 70 SPEAKINGmodel DellHymes S SettingandScene Thesettingreferstothetimeandplacewhilescenedescribestheenvironmentofthesituation P Participants Thisreferstowhoisinvolvedinthespeechincludingthespeakerandtheaudience E Ends Thepurposeandgoalsofthespeechalongwithanyoutcomesofthespeech A ActSequence Theorderofeventsthattookplaceduringthespeech K Key Theoveralltoneormannerofthespeech I Instrumentalities Theformandstyleofthespeechbeinggiven N Norms Defineswhatissociallyacceptableattheevent G Genre Thetypeofspeechthatisbeinggiven http www mnsu edu 71 Languageandculture Therelationshipoflanguageandculture Weshallbedealingwiththreeaspectsoflanguageandcultureinthisbook Languageexpressesculturalreality Languageembodiesculturalreality Languagesymbolizesculturalreality 72 DefiningCultureCulture Anintegratedpatternofhumanbehaviorthatincludesthoughts communications languages practices beliefs values customs courtesies rituals mannersofinteractingandroles relationshipsExpectedbehaviorsofaracial ethnic religiousorsocialgroupTheabilitytotransmittheabovetosucceedinggenerations Source NationalCenterforCulturalCompetenceofGeorgetownUniversityhttp www georgetown edu research gucdc nccc ncccplannersguide html 73 AnAnthropologicalPerspectiveofCultureTopical Cultureconsistsofeverythingonalistoftopics orcategories suchassocialorganization religion oreconomyHistorical Cultureissocialheritage ortradition thatispassedontofuturegenerationsBehavioral Cultureisshared learnedhumanbehavior awayoflifeNormative Cultureisideals values orrulesforliving 74 Functional Cultureisthewayhumanssolveproblemsofadaptingtotheenvironment