石油論文漢譯英.doc

SPE120630WaterIssuesRelatingtoHeavyOilProductionJ.A.Veil,SPE,andJ.J.Quinn,ArgonneNationalLaboratory,andJ.P.Garcia,U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,NationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratoryThispaperwaspreparedforpresentationatthe2009SPEAmericasE&PEnvironmental&SafetyConferenceheldinSanAntonio,Texas,USA,2325March2009.ThispaperwasselectedforpresentationbyanSPEprogramcommitteefollowingreviewofinformationcontainedinanabstractsubmittedbytheauthor(s).ContentsofthepaperhavenotbeenreviewedbytheSocietyofPetroleumEngineersandaresubjecttocorrectionbytheauthor(s).ThematerialdoesnotnecessarilyreflectanypositionoftheSocietyofPetroleumEngineers,itsofficers,ormembers.Electronicreproduction,distribution,orstorageofanypartofthispaperwithoutthewrittenconsentoftheSocietyofPetroleumEngineersisprohibited.Permissiontoreproduceinprintisrestrictedtoanabstractofnotmorethan300words;illustrationsmaynotbecopied.TheabstractmustcontainconspicuousacknowledgmentofSPEcopyright.AbstractCrudeoiloccursinmanydifferentformsthroughouttheworld.Animportantcharacteristicofcrudeoilthataffectstheeaseatwhichitcanbeproducedisitsdensityandviscosity.Lightercrudeoiltypicallycanbeproducedmoreeasilyandatalowercostthanheaviercrudeoil.Historically,muchoftheworldsoilsupplycamefromlightormediumcrudeoilsources.Oilandgascompaniesareactivelylookingtowardheaviercrudeoilsourcestohelpmeetdemandsandtotakeadvantageoflargeheavyoilreserveslocatedinmanycountries.HeavyoilincludesveryviscousoilresourceslikethosefoundinsomefieldsinCaliforniaandVenezuelaandoil(ortar)sands.Inthispaper,oilshaleisalsoconsideredasheavyoil.Producedwateristhelargestby-productassociatedwithconventionaloilproduction.Thecostofmanaginglargevolumesofproducedwaterisanimportantcomponentoftheoverallcostofproducingoil.Mostmatureoilfieldsrelyoninjectedwatertomaintainformationpressureduringproduction.Theprocessesinvolvedwithheavyoilproductionoftenrequireexternalwatersuppliesforsteamgeneration,washing,andothersteps.Whilesomeheavyoilprocessesgenerateproducedwater,othersgeneratedifferenttypesofindustrialwastewater.Managementanddispositionofthewastewaterpresentschallengesandcostsfortheoperators.Thispaperdescribeswaterrequirementsrelatingtoheavyoilproductionandpotentialsourcesforthatwater.Italsodescribeshowwaterisusedandtheresultingwaterqualityimpactsassociatedwithheavyoilproduction.IntroductionThispaperisbasedonaNovember2008reportpreparedbyArgonneNationalLaboratoryfortheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,NationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(VeilandQuinn2008).Thefullreportcontainsnumerousfiguresandmapsplusdescriptionsofmanytechnologiesusedtoproduceheavyoil.Thispaperdoesnotincludethatinformation.ReaderscanreadilyviewthatinformationbydownloadingVeilandQuinn(2008)fromArgonnesEnvironmentalScienceDivisionWebsite(/pub/dsp_detail.cfm?PubID=2299).DefinitionofHeavyOilHeavyoilisgenerallydefinedintermsofAPIgravityandmayalsoincludeviscosityinthedefinition.APIgravitywasestablishedasauniformwayofcharacterizingthedensityorspecificgravityofoilbytheAmericanPetroleumInstitute.APIgravityisanarbitraryscaleexpressingthegravityordensityofliquidpetroleumproducts.ThemeasuringscaleiscalibratedintermsofdegreesAPI.Itiscalculatedasfollows:APIGravity()=(141.5specificgravityoftheoilat60F)131.5HigherAPIgravityratingsreflectlightertypesofcrudeoil.Theboundariesbetweendifferentclassesofoil(e.g.,light,intermediate,heavy,extraheavy)allfollowthesametrend,butdifferentauthorschooseslightlydifferentboundariesbetweencategories.Generally,heavyoilhasanAPIgravityof22orlower,andextraheavyoilhasanAPIgravityof10orlower.Dusseault(2001)recommendsthatviscositybemeasuredinsitu,andthatheavyoilhasaviscositygreaterthan100centipoise(cP).Hefurthersuggeststhatthedefinitionforheavyoilcouldalsobeexpressedintermsofproducibility.Heavyoilshouldhavesomemobilityundernaturallyexistingconditionsandcanflowtowellsandbeproducedeconomically.Incontrast,extraheavyoils,oilsands,andbitumentypicallyhavebothalowAPIgravityandhighviscosity,suchthattheydonotflownaturally.Theyaretypicallyproducedthroughthermalprocessesorsolventaddition.2SPE120630TypesandSignificantDepositsofHeavyOilThetwomainformsofheavyoiltypicallydescribedintheliteratureareviscousheavyoilandoilsands(bitumen).Whilesomeexamplesofeachareclearlydistinct,thereisagradientinpropertiesthatblurstheboundarybetweenviscouscrudefoundinasandstoneformationandoilsands.Severalexamplesofeacharedescribedbelow.Conspicuouslyabsentfrommostoftheheavyoilliteratureisoilshale.Oilshaleinitsnaturalstatecontainskerogen,aprecursortopetroleum.Kerogenisthesolid,insoluble,organicmaterialintheshalethatcanbeconvertedtooilandotherpetroleumproductsbypyrolysisanddistillation.Thekerogeninoilshaledoesnotflownaturallyandmustbesubjectedtoheattreatmenttobereleasedfromtheshale.Forthepurposesofthispaper,oilshaleisconsideredasaformofheavyoil.Itfacesmanyofthesamewaterissuesasoilsands.ItisaverylargepotentialhydrocarbonresourcefortheUnitedStates.Thefollowingsectionsdescribesignificantdepositsofthethreetypesofheavyoil.Nomapsdelineatingthedepositsareincludedinthispaper,buttheyareavailableinVeilandQuinn(2008).ViscousHeavyOil.Thefirsttypeofheavyoildescribedhereisliquidorsemi-liquidbutisveryviscous.Inmanypartsoftheworld,heavyoilseepstothesurfaceandaccumulatesinpitsorotherdepressions.SignificantdepositsofheavyoilarefoundinCanada,Venezuela,andinCaliforniaandAlaskaintheUnitedStates.CanadaishometohugeheavyoilresourcesinAlbertaandSaskatchewan.Thenortherndepositsaretruetarsands(oroilsands)withcombinationsofextra-heavycrudeoilandbitumen(50,000cPinsitu)fillingthesandstoneinterstices.Thesearediscussedinalatersection.Otherdepositscanbeconsideredasviscousheavyoilandarethereforementionedhere.Themoresoutherlyandeasterlydepositsmakeupalargeregionofheavyoildeposits(knownastheHeavyOilBelt)foundinaseriesofblanketsandsandchannelsandsextendingallthewayfromsouthwesternSaskatchewantozonesoverlyingtheColdLakeOilSandsnearBonnyville(locatedabout120kmnorthofLloydminster).Theoilisconsiderablylighterindensity(11to18APIgravity)andofmuchlowerviscosity(500to20,000cP)comparedwiththemajoroilsandsdepositstothenorth;therefore,itiseasiertoproduce,whichiswhyitisthefocusofmuchoftherecentincreasesinheavyoilproduction.Thereareperhaps300billionbarrels(bbl)ofoilinplaceintheHeavyOilBelt,anditisestimatedthatatleast50billionto60billionbblmayultimatelyberecoverable(Dusseault2001).Venezuelaishometoseverallargeheavyoilfields.Thewesternpartofthecountry,aroundLakeMaracaibo,holdslargereservesofheavyoil.TheAPIgravityofthecrudeoilintheMaracaiboregionrangesfrom9to33(Dusseault2008).ButthelargestaccumulationofextraheavyoilintheworldisfoundinazoneincentralVenezuelaknownastheFajaPetroliferadelOrinoco(oftenshortenedtoFajadelOrinocoorjustFaja).Dusseaultetal.(2008)notethattheFajaisestimatedtoholdalmost1.3trillionbblofoilinplace.TheextraheavycrudeoilherehasatypicalAPIgravityof7to10.However,unlikemanyotherlowAPI-gravitycrudes,theviscosityofFajacrudeissomewhatlower,therebyallowingthecrudetobepartiallyproducedwithoutthermaltechniques.LatertechnologyadvanceshaveallowedgreaterproductionoftheFaja.Californiahasabundantoilreserves.Bythelate1800s,oilwasbeingproducedthroughdrilledwells.Explorationthroughoutthestatefoundatleastsixgiantoilfields,threeofwhichcontainheavyoil.TheMidway-Sunset,KernRiver,andSouthBelridgefieldshaveproducedmorethan1billionbblofoileach(Curtisetal.2002).TheKernRiverfieldbeganproductionpriorto1900andcontinuestoday.Curtisetal.(2002)reportthattheKernRiverfieldhasanAPIgravityof10to15andaviscosityof500to10,000cP.Thesefeatures,alongwiththelowinitialreservoirtemperatureandpressure,ledtoamodestprimaryrecovery.Inthe1960s,theindustrybegantryingsteaminjectiontohelptheheavyoilflowmorereadily.KernRivercrudeoilreactedwelltosteamflooding,andtheproductionratesincreasedsubstantially.TheNorthSlopeofAlaskaishometotwoofthelargestconventionaloilfieldsinNorthAmerica(PrudhoeBayandKuparuk).SeveralothersmalleroilfieldsthatstillwouldbeconsideredgiantsbycontinentalU.S.standardshavebeendevelopednearby.InadditiontothemoretraditionalNorthSlopeoilformations,heavyoilformationsoverliethemainproducingzonesatPrudhoeBayandKuparuk.Asmuchas36billionbbloforiginal-oil-in-placeliewithintheUgnu,WestSak,andSchraderBluffFormationsasheavyoil.Thatamountsurpassestheoriginal-oil-in-placeofPrudhoeandKuparukcombined(Mohanty2004).Locatedatadepthof3,000to3,500ft,theseformationsareextremelyviscous.NorthSlopeoperatorsthusfarhavefocusedontheless-viscouscrudesintheWestSakandSchraderBluffheavyoilformations,whereviscositiesrangefrom30to3,000cP.Combinedoriginal-oil-in-placevolumesforthesetwoformationstotalabout10billionto20billionbbl.TheUgnuFormationhasevenhigherviscosities.OilSands.Oilsandscontainclay,sand,water,andbitumen.Thebitumeninoilsandscannotbepumpedfromthegroundinitsnaturalstate.Oilsandscanbeminedandprocessedtoextracttheoil-richbitumenforsubsequentrefining.Bitumencanalsobeproducedthroughinsituundergroundheatingorotherrecoveryprocesses.SignificantdepositsofoilsandsarefoundinCanada,Venezuela,and,toamorelimitedextent,intheUnitedStates.Canadahastheworldssecondlargestprovencrudeoilreserves(15%ofworldreserves)afterSaudiArabia.MostofthesevastreservesareintheformofoilsandslocatedinAlberta.Theoilsandresourcesareprimarilylocatedinfourlargedeposits.Byfar,thelargestandmostaccessibleistheAthabascaOilSandsdeposit,covering40,000km2.LocatedtothesouthofFortMcMurray,theformationprobablycontains1trillionbblofbitumen.ThebitumenishighlyviscousandisoftenSPE1206303ofaspecificgravitygreaterthanwater(10API)(Dusseault2001).SomeoftheoilsandsnearFortMcMurrayareclosetothesurfaceandcanbemined.Upto20%ofthetotalareacanbedevelopedusingminingtechniques.Insitutechniquesareneededforotherdeeperdeposits(OSDCundated).TheWabasca(orWabiskaw)OilSandsdepositliesabovethewesternpartoftheAthabascaOilSandsandextendswestward.Thisareacontainsnearly100billionbblofbitumen.Thebitumenishighlyviscous,similartotheAthabascaOilSandsdeposit.Thedepthofburialis100to700m(Dusseault2001).TheColdLakeOilSandsarelocatedabout20kmnorthofBonnyville,Alberta.Thisdepositcovers22,000km2andprobablycontainsmorethan375billionbblofbitumen.ThebitumenishighlyviscousbutconsiderablylesssothantheAthabascaOilSands,somewhatlesssulphurous,andthedepthofburialis400to600m(Dusseault2001).Presently,someofthesedepositsarebeingrecoveredusinginsitutechnology(OSDCundated).ThePeaceRiverOilSandsarelocatedwestoftheAthabascaandWabascadeposits.Thisdepositisbelievedtocontainnearly200billionbblofbitumen.Thebitumenishighlyviscous,similartotheAthabascadeposit,andthedepthofburialis500to700m(Dusseault2001).Thesedeepdepositsarebeingrecoveredwithinsitumethods(OSDCundated).Venezuelahasvastheavyoilreserves.SomeauthorsrefertotheVenezuelanheavyoilasviscousheavyoil,whileothersconsiderittobeoilsands.Inthispaper,wetreattheVenezuelanheavyoilasviscousheavyoil.Therefore,theVenezuelanresourcesaredescribedintheprevioussection.AlthoughtheU.S.oilsandsreserves(typicallycalledtarsandsintheUnitedStates)aresmallcomparedwithCanadianreserves,theystillaresufficientlylargetobeanimportantsourceofoil.IntheUnitedStates,tarsandsresourcesareprimarilyconcentratedineasternUtah,mostlyonpubliclands.Thein-placetarsandsoilresourcesinUtahareestimatedat12billionto19billionbbl(BLM2008).OilShale.ArecentreportbytheU.S.GeologicalSurveyprovidesaverythoroughreviewofworldwideoilshaleresources(Dyni2006).Oilshaleoccursinatleast33countriesworldwide.Theglobaloilshaleresourcebaseisbelievedtocontainabout2.8trillionbbl,ofwhichthevastmajority,about2trillionbbl,islocatedwithintheUnitedStates(includingeasternandwesternshales).Themosteconomicallyattractivedeposits,containinganestimated1.2trillionto1.8trillionbbl(withanoilcontentofmorethan0.24bbl/ton),arefoundintheGreenRiverFormationofColorado(PiceanceBasin),Utah(UintaBasin),andWyoming(GreenRiverandWashakieBasins)(DOE2004).Notallresourcesinplacearerecoverable.Nevertheless,theoilshaledepositsoftheGreenRiverFormationhavebeenextensivelystudiedandovershadowallotherdepositsonthebasisofbothabundanceandrichness.Morethan70%ofthetotaloilshaleacreageintheGreenRiverFormation,includingtherichestandthickestoilshaledeposits,isunderfederallyownedandmanagedlands.Thus,thefederalgovernmentdirectlycontrolsaccesstothecommerciallyattractiveportionsoftheoilshaleresourcebase.OutsidetheGreenRiverFormation,theElkoFormationofNevadaisanothersmallerbutstillattractiveoilshaledeposit.Itcontainsinexcessof200millionbbloffairlyhigh-gradeoilshalebedsaveragingatleast0.35bbl/tonovera15-ftthickness(RAND2005).IntheeasternUnitedStates,black,organic-richshales,producedduringtheDevonianPeriod,underlieportionsofKentucky,Indiana,Ohio,andTennessee.However,whenheated,theorganicmatteroftheDevonianshalesyieldsonlyabouthalfasmuchoilastheorganicmatterintheGreenRiverFormationshales.Becauseofconsiderationsofgrade,yield,andprocessingcosts,easternoilshaledepositsareatpresentnotlikelycandidatesfordevelopment.However,othershaleformationsintheeasternUnitedStates,suchastheMarcellusShale,werebeingactivelydevelopedduring2008fornaturalgasproduction.InternationalScopeofHeavyOilActivities.InMarch2008,representativesfrommanynationsgatheredinEdmonton,Alberta(Canada),fortheWorldHeavyOilCongress2008.Technicalpaperswerepresentedonmanyaspectsofheavyoilproduction.Thelocationsofheavyoilproductionactivitiesincludedmanycountries,inadditiontothewell-knownheavyoilregionsofCanada,Venezuela,andtheUnitedStates.SomeoftheothercountrieswithheavyoilresourcesincludeChina,Egypt,Iran,Kazakhstan,Kuwait,Oman,andTurkey.InadditiontotheWorldHeavyOilCongress,otheroilindustrygroupshaveshowninterestinheavyoil.InOctober2007,thePetroleumEnvironmentalResearchForum(PERF)heldameetingonthethemeof“EnvironmentalChallengesofHeavyCrudeOils,”whichfocusedonindustryapplicationsforair,water,solids,andremediation.Oneoftheconclusionsfromthatmeetingisthatwaterisamajorfactorincurrentandfuturedecisionsregardingthedevelopmentofheavyoil.HeavyOilProductionTechnologiesHeavyoildepositsarefoundinmanypartsoftheworldinmanydifferentgeologicalandclimaticsettings.Thesefactors,alongwiththeviscosityandAPIgravityofdifferentheavyoildeposits,leadtoawidearrayoftechnologiesforproducingtheoil.Thetechnologiesdifferinseveralimportantways:Miningvs.insituprocesses,Cold(ambienttemperature)vs.thermalprocesses,4SPE120630Technologiesalreadyincommonusevs.emergingtechnologies.VeilandQuinn(2008)includedescriptionsofmanyactiveand