高考英語寫作指導(dǎo)-好段落的標(biāo)準(zhǔn).doc

第四天：好段落的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)學(xué)完段落的展開方法以后，我們就保證能寫出好的段落嗎？什么樣的段落可以被稱之為好段落呢？一般說來，一個(gè)好的段落應(yīng)該具有這樣的特點(diǎn)：意思完整，主題一致，前后連貫，過渡自然。換句話說，一個(gè)好的段落必須能夠充分地表達(dá)思想，內(nèi)容上沒有任何殘缺；一個(gè)段落只有一個(gè)主題，所有的擴(kuò)展句都為主題句服務(wù)，主題句與擴(kuò)展句在意義上始終保持統(tǒng)一；段落結(jié)構(gòu)安排合理、條理清楚，句與句之間的轉(zhuǎn)換自然、順理成章。這就是段落的統(tǒng)一性和連貫性。一、統(tǒng)一性段落中每一句均須與此段的主題相關(guān)，并提供數(shù)據(jù)來支持主題，句子間必須先后有序，合乎邏輯，否則便會欠缺統(tǒng)一性。當(dāng)你寫下一段落時(shí)，必須檢查每句的內(nèi)容是否依據(jù)主旨，如果不是的話，便要修改或移到另一段。例如：Learning a foreign language has changed. Not long ago, students would sit with pen in hand, writing the basic forms of a language, learning structures they would never be able to speak. In that same classroom today, pens and notebooks have been put away. The spoken sounds of foreign tongue fill the room. Today the last skill learned writing a foreign language comes as a natural and possible part of the total language learning process. Yet, just a few years ago, the last skill learned was the first skill mastered todayspeaking a foreign tongue. To visit some foreign countries, travelers have to apply for visas.由以上段落可見，每句均圍繞主旨而發(fā)展，主題句是“Learning a foreign language has changed.”，但其中有一句“To visit some foreign countries, travelers have to apply for visas.”則是說申請護(hù)照的，明顯地不合此段主題 learning a foreign language，所以必須移走，才能使本段意思?xì)w一?；顒咏淌艺堈页鱿旅孢@段話中與主題不統(tǒng)一的句子。No one knows exactly when people started drying tea leaves, putting boiling water on top and then drinking it. Experts believe tea drinking may have started in China, Tibet and India. A Chinese legend says that it began in 2500BC when a few leaves accidentally fell into the Emperors boiling water. Tea is very delicious and very popular today. Chinese records from 780AD talk about growing, drying, and drinking tea. Soon after that tea was brought to Japan by Chinese Buddhist monks. During the 1600s it was brought to England.二、連貫性段落除了必須具有統(tǒng)一性及文字流暢外，句與句，字與字之間還要有連貫性，要達(dá)到此點(diǎn)，便需要做出適當(dāng)排序；如果一個(gè)段落內(nèi)句子不統(tǒng)一，則即使有連貫性也沒用，反之，若沒有聯(lián)系的句子亂成一團(tuán)，就算全部與主旨有關(guān)，也難以讓讀者看懂。所以，段落的統(tǒng)一性和連貫性二者缺一不可。要保證段落的連貫性，常用的方法有以下幾種：1.使用過渡性詞語過渡性詞語是一種關(guān)系指引詞，不僅能承上啟下，還能轉(zhuǎn)折上下文的語氣，充分顯示句與句之間的邏輯關(guān)系，能貫通思想的脈絡(luò)，使段落思想表達(dá)得清晰、流暢。過渡性詞語的種類很多，須根據(jù)上下文的內(nèi)容選擇使用。常用過渡性詞語詳見附錄。注：在使用某些過渡詞時(shí)，必須了解標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號的用法。1）若轉(zhuǎn)折詞在一句子中用作引申或轉(zhuǎn)折意思，要用分號和逗號。比如：You cannot go to the beach because it is raining heavily; moreover, you havent finished your homework.2）如果要用轉(zhuǎn)折詞表示兩句子間的意思銜接或轉(zhuǎn)移，則運(yùn)用標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號時(shí)便如下列所示：. Constantly,. However,. Furthermore,.例如：I studied English for four years in college. Nevertheless, I had trouble talking with people when I was traveling in the United States.3）在使用從屬連詞時(shí)可用在句子中間，或放在句首，要留意標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號的運(yùn)用各有不同。例如：The city becomes calm and well ordered after the parade.After the parade, the city becomes calm and well ordered.Speech is the image of actions.語言是行動的反映。 常用標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號解析：逗號（Comma ,）逗號是最常用也是最常用錯(cuò)的標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號，其中一個(gè)最常見的用法是分開從句（clauses）及短語（phrases）。1）將逗號放于連接詞之前（for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so），連接兩個(gè)獨(dú)立的從句（independent clauses）?？赏ㄟ^：“fan boys”這兩個(gè)詞來記憶連接詞2）以逗號來分開句子內(nèi)的詞、短語或從句3）以逗號來分隔并列的形容詞4）以逗號來分隔非限制性定語從句注意：不要在限制性定語從句中加上逗號。錯(cuò)誤句子： Stores, which honor credit cards, have noticed an increase in sales.正確句子： Stores which honor credit cards have noticed an increase in sales.句中 which honor credit cards 是不能缺少的部分，如果刪去，即指“所有商店都注意到營業(yè)額有上升”，而不是原意所指“可以使用信用卡的商店”，所以我們不能用逗號分隔。5）用逗號來分隔同位語When I graduate in June, I will begin work at ABC Company, a local trading firm.6）用逗號來分隔句子中的插入成分7）用逗號來分隔引述句8）在日期、名稱、地址及數(shù)字上使用逗號的要點(diǎn)注意：如果日期中只包含月日、年月、或年份季節(jié)，則不須加逗號。年份是不用逗號的，如 1997（但是我們會用 25,000 B.C.）。度量上，我們用逗號來分隔文字，如：five feet, three inches. 頁數(shù)上則用 page 10, line 5Better the devil you know than the devil you dont know.明槍易躲，暗箭難防。句號 （Period .）在常用標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號中，句號僅次于逗號，而且也是較易使用的符號。只需要大家一定記?。河⒄Z的句號不同于漢語的句號，是一個(gè)實(shí)心點(diǎn)。很多同學(xué)一不小心就會寫成一個(gè)小圓圈，而且這樣的同學(xué)還隨處可見、為數(shù)不少。句號一般有三種用法：（1）結(jié)束句子: Turn it on, please.（2）結(jié)束略語: Mrs. e.g. ect. N.Y.（3）分開小數(shù): 0.98 $2.38分號 (Semicolon ;)分號最常用于兩個(gè)從句之間，其分隔度比逗號大，但比句號小，通常用作表示句子中兩個(gè)從句意思相連。（1）以分號代替句號來分隔兩個(gè)相關(guān)的獨(dú)立從句Spring is here; the birds are chirping with joy.（2）當(dāng)其中一個(gè)獨(dú)立從句中包含逗號時(shí)，以分號來分隔兩個(gè)從句If you give children too much freedom, they will never learn to control themselves; on the other hand, if you give them too little, they will never become self reliant.（3）當(dāng)要使用連接副詞或其他連接語來聯(lián)結(jié)從句時(shí)，以分號作分隔。2.正確處理“替代和所指”除了過渡性詞語外，省略、替代和所指（reference）等手段同樣可以起到連句成段，保持段落連貫性的作用。代詞是很重要的關(guān)系指引詞。它們不僅能指明句子內(nèi)部某些詞之間的關(guān)系，而且能溝通和建立句子和句子之間意義上的聯(lián)系，從而使段落中前后句子的意義邏輯地、有條理地聯(lián)系起來。利用代詞指代前面提到的名詞，可以起到承上啟下的作用。如：(1) Tom finished his drink at a gulp, wondered about another, decided not. (2) His career might be slithering downhill, his book might be choking itself to death, but he still had Thea. (3) And this, he knew as he looked at his glass, was no way to keep her. (4) He knew it, and yet he kept slipping away from his resolution. (5) How else did you blot out the feeling of failure?(6) But the subconscious was a real devil, eating away at him. (7) No matter how determinedly he dropped the hours and disappointments out of his conscious mind, they only sank below the surface, and lay there.上文中，（1）是主題句，為全段提供心理背景；（2）以兩個(gè)平行結(jié)構(gòu)承接上文，并以過渡詞but 表示意義轉(zhuǎn)折；（3）用過渡詞and表示意義引申，并用指示詞 this承接上文（所指）；（4）中的and yet表示意義轉(zhuǎn)折；（5）用else承接上句（所指）；（6）是第二段的主題句，以but為承上啟下的過渡詞；（7）通過近義詞重復(fù)（conscious/subconscious）承接上文。在這短短的百十個(gè)詞的兩段話里，單單第三人稱代詞就出現(xiàn)了16次之多：其中he （指Tom）出現(xiàn)六次， his六次， him一次，her（指Thea）一次， it（指上句）一次， they（指上文the hurts and disappointments）一次?？梢姶~在組成連貫、統(tǒng)一、合乎邏輯的段落方面起著多么大的作用。需要注意的是，在使用代詞達(dá)到段落連貫時(shí)，代詞和它所代的名詞（所指）一定要在性、數(shù)、人稱上保持一致?？聪旅娴睦樱篒t rained day and night for two weeks. The basement flooded and everything was under water. It spoiled all our calculations. 在這三句話中，第三句中的“it”一詞到底指代什么并不清楚，因而會造成岐義。修改后的下面這句話所表達(dá)的意思就很清楚了。The event of raining and flooding led to the physical destruction of certain documents in which our calculations were recorded.3.重復(fù)使用關(guān)鍵詞或短語關(guān)鍵詞或短語的重復(fù)出現(xiàn)，必然使人把眼前的句子與前面的句子聯(lián)系起來，如同用一根線將整個(gè)段落貫穿成一個(gè)整體，從而達(dá)到連貫性。請看下面的例子：Each man is the architect of his own fate.每個(gè)人都是自己命運(yùn)的建筑師。The saying “One picture is worth 1,000 words” suggests the importance to a writer of thinking by examples. By putting the right examples in a paragraph or composition, a writer can tell his or her idea to a reader. But the art of using the right examples is not easy to learn. Choosing examples calls for imagination. Using examples well calls for both reasoning and control. Examples must make abstract ideas more concrete. At the same time, examples must not lead a reader away from a writers central purpose. Clear thinking is needed for good writing. Clear thinking alone helps a writer choose examples that will explain the idea of an essay. You must have a plan instead of a grocery list. You must write with your mind as well as your pen because a composition is an act of thought.本段的中心思想是the importance of thinking by examples，example一詞先后出現(xiàn)了七次，而每次出現(xiàn)都標(biāo)志著意義的引申，不僅沒有累贅之感，而且全段文筆流暢，在語義上具有明顯的統(tǒng)一性和連貫性。The truth is great virtue, and lying, its extreme opposite, is the devil. Truth emanates from a healthy, happy, and settled state of mind, while lie is born of corruption, nurtured in depravity, and bred in cowardice. Lying, unfortunately, is a prevalent vice that is not strictly confined to any particular class of the society, but has its ramifications so extended that it embraces in its toils victims among the whole human race. 在這個(gè)段落里，主題句里有兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵詞truth和lying。在段落的擴(kuò)展句里，這兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵詞重復(fù)出現(xiàn)（還用了lying的名詞形式lie），使句子之間相互銜接，達(dá)到段落連貫的目的。4.利用平行結(jié)構(gòu)平行結(jié)構(gòu)的使用是一種修辭手法，通過重復(fù)使用相同的語法結(jié)構(gòu)，其中既有詞匯的重復(fù)，又有純粹的語法結(jié)構(gòu)的重復(fù)。它不但能使段落節(jié)奏勻稱，還可以引起讀者的注意，使讀者順利地理解全段內(nèi)容，起到強(qiáng)調(diào)的作用。請看下面各例：Parents spend much money and time on their children. They do their best to make the children enjoy a higher standard of living than they themselves do. They want their children to learn many skills, such as painting, English, playing the violin or the piano, and so on. Children are forced to do what they are not really interested in. They have no adequate time to play. They cant get along well with other children. They dont know how to express themselves. As a result, some children are not psychologically healthy, and fail to fulfill their parents desires.本段可以分為兩個(gè)層次，第一個(gè)層次說明Parents spend much money and time on their children.用兩個(gè)相同句式They do their best to make their children .和They want their children to.來對此作進(jìn)一步說明和論證。第二個(gè)層次說明Children are forced to do what they are not really interested in. 作者用了三個(gè)相同的句式They have no., They cant., They dont.對此作進(jìn)一步的說明和論證。It is bad manners to interrupt anyone who is reciting or speaking. It is bad manners to wave the hand in the air to attract the teachers attention. It is bad manners to show an excessive eagerness to recite and show off your knowledge or cleverness. It is also bad manners to keep silent when the teacher asks you a question. If you do not know the answer, say so immediately; if you do, give it in a distinct voice so that all the class may hear.本段的主題句在段落末尾處。前面用了三個(gè)相同的句式It is bad manners to.，平行的句子結(jié)構(gòu)在這里起到了引起讀者注意的作用，使段落很富感染力。Birds of a feather flock together.物以類聚，人以群分?；顒咏淌艺垵櫳旅孢@段文章，用今天所學(xué)的技巧改善其連貫