藥學(xué)英語(上冊)

1、Unit11. Afullappreciationofthephysiologyofalivingorganismmustbebasedonasoundknowledgeofitsanatomy.Anatomydoesnotmerelystudytheseparationofparts,buttheaccuratedescriptionofthemorphologiesandfunctionsofdifferentorgans.對生物生理學(xué)的全面了解必須基于解剖學(xué)的系統(tǒng)知識.解剖學(xué)不僅僅是研究人體各局部的別離,還要準(zhǔn)確的描述各個器官的形態(tài)和生理功能.2. Ourdailyfoodintakem

2、ustmatchrequirementsandanyexcessmustbeexcretedforbalancetobemaintained.我們每天攝入的事物必須滿足需要,任何多余的東西必須排出體外才能維持平衡.3. Theprocessofstabilizationoftheinternalenvironmentiscalledhomeostasisandisessentialifthecellsofthebodyaretofunctionnormally.內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)定的過程稱之為體內(nèi)平衡,體內(nèi)平衡也是機體的細(xì)胞正常發(fā)揮作用所必不可少的.4. Humancellshavetheability

3、tobreakdownlargemoleculestosmalleronestoliberatesufficientenergyfortheiractivities.人類細(xì)胞有將大分子分解成小分子的水平,從而為自身活動釋放足夠的能量.5. Aslongasnormalconditionsaremaintainedinthisinternalenvironment,thecellsofthebodycontinuetoliveandfunctionproperly.只要這種內(nèi)環(huán)境正常的條件得以維持,機體的細(xì)胞就能繼續(xù)生存并發(fā)揮正常功能.Unit21. Biochemistryaskshowthe

4、thousandsofdifferentbiomoleculesinteractwitheachothertoconfertheremarkablepropertiesoflivingorganisms.生物化學(xué)探尋的是數(shù)千種不同的生物分子如何相互作用,以賦予生物體具備顯著的特性.2. Enzymesarecatalyststhatacceleratetheratesofbiologicalreactions.Eachenzymeisveryspecificinitsfunctionandactsonlyinaparticularmetabolicreaction.酶是能加速生物學(xué)反響速率的催

5、化劑.每一種酶都有專一的功能并且僅在特定代謝反響中發(fā)揮作用.3. Oneofthemostfruitfulapproachestounderstandbiologicalphenomenahasbeentopurifyanindividualchemicalcomponent,suchasaprotein,fromalivingorganismandtocharacterizeitschemicalstructureorcatalyticactivity.用以了解生物學(xué)現(xiàn)象的最有效的方法之一是從生物體中純化出單一化學(xué)成分,例如蛋白質(zhì),并對其化學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)或催化活性進行表征.4. Thechemica

6、lprinciplesthatgovernthepropertiesofbiologicalmoleculesincludethecovalentbondingofcarbonwithitselfandwithotherelementsandthefunctionalgroupsthatappearincommonbiologicalmolecules,etc.決定生物分子特性的化學(xué)原理包括碳與自身或其他元素的共價結(jié)合和一般生物分子中出現(xiàn)的功能基團等.5. ThebasicunitofDNAisalinearpolymeroffourdifferentmonomericsubunits,deo

7、xyribonucleotides,arrangedinapreciselinearsequence.脫氧核糖核酸的根本單位是由四種不同的脫氧核糖核甘酸單一亞單位以精確的線性序列進行排列而構(gòu)成的線性聚合物.Unit31. Althoughtheexistenceofmicrobeswasdeterminedalmostthreehundredyearsago,thestudyofmicrobiologyisonlygettingstartedcomparedwithzoologyandbotany.盡管三百年前人們就確定世界上存在微生物,但與動物學(xué)和植物學(xué)相比,微生物學(xué)研究還只是剛剛開始.2.

8、 Inancienttimes,theexistenceofmicrobeswashypothesizedandtheymightbetheresponsibleagentofdiseases,whichwaspurespeculation斷astherewasnomicroscopeatthetime.在古代,人們認(rèn)為有微生物存在而且微生物可能是傳染病的致病原,但當(dāng)時沒有顯微鏡,所以這一切純屬猜想.3. Thefirstonewhosuggestedtaxonomicclassification份類法ofbacteriaanddiscoveredsporesisFerdinandCohn,a

9、botanistwhostudiedalgaeandphotosyntheticbacteria.Heestablishedbacteriology.第一位提出對細(xì)菌分類和發(fā)現(xiàn)抱子的人是植物學(xué)家費南科恩,他對藻類和光合細(xì)菌進行了研究,創(chuàng)立了細(xì)菌學(xué).4. Microbesmaybetiny,butthefieldofmicrobiologyisrelativelyhuge,whichencompassesmanysubdisciplinesaffectingpeopleslifeandhealthalot.微生物體積雖小,但微生物學(xué)領(lǐng)域卻很大,其中包括很多分支學(xué)科,對人類生活和健康產(chǎn)生了重大影響

10、.5. Someofmicrobesmaycausediseasesbutnotallmicrobesaredetriment,suchassomeofthemusedinindustrialfermentation發(fā)酵tomakewineandvinegar酉S.有些微生物能引發(fā)疾病,但不是所有的微生物都是有害的,如一些微生物可用于工業(yè)發(fā)酵,制作酒和醋等.Unit41. Thescienceoftheeffectsofdrugsonthebodyiscalledpharmacology,andthescientistswhostudyitarepharmacologists.Pharmaco

11、logyisnotasciencethatcanbestudiedonitsown,butthatcloselyrelatedtootherbranchesofscience.Pharmacologistsshouldnotonlyunderstandthenormalprocessthattakeplaceinthebody,butknowhowthefunctionsofthebodyareaffectedbydisease.研究藥物作用于人體的科學(xué)叫藥理學(xué),研究這門學(xué)問的科學(xué)家便是藥理學(xué)家.藥理學(xué)不是一門能夠獨立研究的科學(xué),而是與其它學(xué)科緊密相關(guān)的.藥理學(xué)家不僅要了解人體內(nèi)進行的正常反響

12、過程,還應(yīng)懂得機體功能是怎樣受疾病影響的.2. Forphysiciansandmedicalstudents,thescopeofpharmacologyisnotsoexpansiveasitscommondefinition.Theclinicianisinterestedprimarilyindrugsthatareusefulintheprevention,diagnosis,andtreatmentofhumandisease,orinthepreventionofpregnancy.醫(yī)生和醫(yī)學(xué)生對藥理學(xué)的理解和要求沒有其定義范疇那么廣泛.臨床醫(yī)生的主要興趣在于藥物對人類疾病的預(yù)防

13、、診斷及治療,或者在避孕方面所起的作用.3. Allphysiciansshouldsharetheresponsibilitytoresolvekindsofsociologicalproblemscausedbytheabuseofdrugs,properlyused,drugsaregreatblessingtomankind;improperlyused,theycoulddestroyhumanrace.Whenapatient,particularlytheelderlyisprescribedfrequentlytotakemorethanonetherapeuticagent,

14、druginteractionsresultingintoxicitywilloccur.所有醫(yī)生都應(yīng)該負(fù)起責(zé)任解決藥品濫用所引起的各種社會問題.藥物用得恰當(dāng),將是人類的一大福音,用得不當(dāng),那么可能毀了人類.病人特別是老年病人經(jīng)常性使用一種以上治療藥物的話,往往會發(fā)生產(chǎn)生毒性藥物的相互作用.4. Atonetime,itwasessentialforthephysiciantohavebroadbotanicalknowledge,becausetheyhadtopossesstheabilityandskilltoselectproperplantsfromwhichtopreparehis

15、owncrudemedicinalpreparations.以前,醫(yī)師必須具備很廣泛的植物學(xué)知識,由于他要懂得挑選適當(dāng)?shù)闹参锏乃胶图记?并將它們制備成簡單的藥物制劑.5. Thestudyofbiochemicalandphysiologicaleffectsofdrugsandtheirmechanismsofactionistermedaspharmacodynamics,whoseuniquenessliesmainlyinthatitsattentionisfocusedonthecharacteristicsofthedrug.Asabroaderscience,itborrows

16、freelyfromboththetheoriesandexperimentaltechniquesofthedrug.Asabroaderscience,itborrowsfreelyfromboththetheoriesandexperimentaltechniquesofphysiology,biochemistry,immunology,andpathology.對藥物的生化生理作用及其活性機制的研究叫做藥效學(xué),該學(xué)科的獨到之處主要在于其關(guān)注的要點是藥物的特征.藥效學(xué)作為一門邊緣學(xué)科,大量借鑒了生理學(xué)、生物化學(xué)、免疫學(xué)、病理學(xué)等學(xué)科的理論和實驗技術(shù).Unit51. Tofightaga

17、instdisease,theimmunesystemgeneratesproteinsknownasantibodiesthatbindtoinvadingorganisms.Buttherealcaseisthattheimmunesystemisnottodevelopaspecializedantibodyeachtimeitisfacedwithanewpathogen.Infact,theimmunesystemselectthemosteffectiveonebymassscreeningofitsantibodyrepertoire,thusidentifyingtheones

18、thatworkbest.為了對抗疾病,免疫系統(tǒng)生成了被稱為抗體的蛋白質(zhì),它們附著于入侵細(xì)菌.但實際情況是免疫系統(tǒng)并不能在每次面對一個新的病原體時都制造出一種特殊的抗體；實際上,免疫系統(tǒng)是通過對其抗體庫的大規(guī)模篩選而確定最有效的抗體.2. Inaprocesscalledcombinatorialchemistry,chemistsgeneratealargenumberofrelatedcompoundsandthenscreenthecollectionfortheonesthatcouldhavemedicinalvalue.在一種被稱為“組合化學(xué)的過程中,化學(xué)家們首先生成很多相關(guān)化合物

19、,然后對它們進行篩選,來找到那些可能具有藥用價值的化合物.3. Inaparallelsynthesis,chemistsoftenuseaso-calledmicrotiterplatetoassemblealltheproductsseparatelyintheirownreactionvessels.在平行合成中,化學(xué)家們常常利用所謂的微量滴定盤將所有的產(chǎn)物都在其各自的反響容器中結(jié)集.4. Aparallelsynthesisandasplit-and-mixsynthesisaredifferentwiththatinaparallelsynthesis,alltheproductsa

20、reassembledseparatelyintheirownreactioncontainers,whileinasplit-and-mixsynthesis,therelatedcompoundsaremixedupinthesamereactionvessel,whichreducesthenumberofcontainersrequired.平行合成和分裂一混合合成的不同在于,在平行合成中每個化合物都留在自己的反響器中,而在分裂一混合合成中,相關(guān)化合物都混合在同一容器中,這種方法極大地減少了所需容器的數(shù)量.5. Attheendofasplit-and-mixsynthesis,all

21、themoleculesattachedtoasinglebeadarefoundtobeofthesamestructure.Chemistspulloutfromthemixturethebeadsthatbearbiologicallyactivemoleculesandthen,usesensitivedetectiontechniquestodeterminethemolecularmakeupofthecompoundattached.在分裂一混合合成過程結(jié)束時,可以發(fā)現(xiàn)所有附著于一個小珠上的分子結(jié)構(gòu)都一樣.化學(xué)家們從混合物中別離出具有生物活性分子的小珠,然后利用靈敏的探測技術(shù)來確

22、定附著的化合物的分子結(jié)構(gòu).Units61. Plantnaturalproductshavehad,andcontinuetohave,animportantroleasmedicinalandpharmaceuticalagents,notonlyaspurifiedisolatesandextractives,butalsoasleadcompoundsforsyntheticoptimization.植物天然產(chǎn)物已經(jīng)并繼續(xù)擁有作為醫(yī)藥和藥劑的重要作用,不僅是純化的別離物提取物,而且作為合成優(yōu)化的先導(dǎo)化合物.2. Plantsecondarymetabolitesalsoshowpromi

23、seforcancerchemoprevention,whichhasbeendefinedas“theuseofnon-cytotoxicnutrientsforpharmacologicalagentstoenhanceintrinsicphysiologicalmechanismsthatprotecttheorganismagainstmutantclonesofmalignantcells.植物次生代謝產(chǎn)物也有希望用于腫瘤化學(xué)預(yù)防,即“利用無細(xì)胞毒營養(yǎng)物或藥物增強內(nèi)在生理機制以保護有機體,預(yù)防惡性腫瘤細(xì)胞的突變復(fù)制.3. Nevertheless,thevastmajorityoft

24、heworldsquarterofamillionplantspecieshasnotbeenevaluatedinpharmaceuticalscreens,andthesmallpercentagethathasbeentestedhasgenerallybeenscreenedforactivityagainstonlyafewtherapeutictargets.然而,世界上25萬種植物的絕大局部還沒有進行藥物篩選評價,一小局部已經(jīng)進行測試的也只是對很少幾種治療靶標(biāo)進行了活性篩選.4. Althoughmanysamplingprogramsdesignedtogeneratelarg

25、enumbersofsamplesforhigh-throughputscreeningprogramshavebeencharacterizedasrandom,ithasbeenshownthattheyareneithertrulyrandomnorhaphazard,butthatsamplingoccurswithoutpreconceivedselectionofspecies.盡管許多產(chǎn)生大量用于高通量篩選的樣品的采樣程序已經(jīng)具有隨機的特征,但是已有結(jié)果說明他們并不是隨機的,也不是任意的,除非采樣是在沒有先入為主的種類選擇下進行的.5. Threemainresearchappr

26、oachesareusedindrugdiscoveryanddevelopmentprocesses:bioactivity-ormechanismofaction-directedisolationandcharacterizationofactivecompounds,(2)rationaldrugdesign-basedmodificationandanalogsynthesis,and(3)mechanismofactionstudies.在藥物發(fā)現(xiàn)和開發(fā)程序中應(yīng)用的三種主要思路是：生物活性或作用機制為導(dǎo)向的別離及活性化合物的鑒定,基于修飾或類似物合成的合理藥物設(shè)計,作用機制研究.U

27、nit71. Absorptionistheprocessofadrugenteringsystemiccirculationfromitssiteofadministration.Exceptdirectinjectionintothebloodvessels,otherroutesofadministrationinvolvethetransportofcellmembrane.吸收是藥物自用藥部位進入血液循環(huán)的過程.除直接注入血管者外,一般的給藥方法都要經(jīng)過細(xì)胞膜的轉(zhuǎn)運.2. Drugabsorption,especiallythoseorallyadministereddrugs,de

28、pendsonmanyfactors,suchastheintrinsiccharacteristicsofthedrug,dosageform,food,patientageandthelike.很多因素都可以影響藥物的吸收,特別是口服藥物的吸收,如藥物本身的性質(zhì),劑型,食物,患者年齡等.3. Thedistributionofadruginthebodyisunevenandisinastateofdynamicequilibrium,thatis,itchangesconstantlywiththeabsorptionandeliminationofthedrug.藥物在體內(nèi)的分布多數(shù)是

29、不均勻的,且處于動態(tài)平衡狀態(tài)中,即隨藥物的吸收與排泄不斷地變化著.4. Afteradrugenterstheblood,itwillmoreorlessbindtoplasmaprotein,butthisbindingislooseandreversible,andisalwaysinastateofequilibrium.藥物進入血液后或多或少地將與血漿蛋白結(jié)合,但這種結(jié)合是疏松的,可逆的,經(jīng)常處于動態(tài)平衡.5. Bioavailabilityistherelativequantityandrateofdrugswithdifferentdosageformswhichareabsorb

30、edandreachthesystemiccirculation;itisconcernedwiththeintensityandspeedofdrugaction.生物利用度是指不同劑型的藥物能吸收進入體循環(huán)的相對份量及速度.它與藥物作用的強度與速度有關(guān).Unit81. Analyticalchemistryaimstoresolvetwoquestions:whatitisandhowmuchitis,thatisqualitativeanalysisandquantitativeanalysis.Qualitativeanalysisistoidentifytheelements,ion

31、sandcompoundscontainedinasamplewhilequantitativeanalysisistodeterminetheexactquantity.分析化學(xué)的核心任務(wù)在于解決兩個問題：一個是有什么；另一個是有多少,也就是定性分析和定量分析.定性分析是指鑒別所含的物質(zhì)而定量分析是測定物質(zhì)的準(zhǔn)確含量.2. Analyticalchemistryhasexpandedbeyondtheboundsofjustchemistry,andmanyhaveadvocatedusingthenameanalyticalsciencetodescribethefield.Eventhi

32、stermfallsshortofrecognitionoftheroleofinstrumentationdevelopmentandapplications.Onesuggestionisthatweusethetermanalyticalscienceandtechnology.分析化學(xué)的開展已經(jīng)超出了化學(xué)的邊界,因此有人提議用分析科學(xué)來描述這個領(lǐng)域.但是,該名詞無視了儀器開展和應(yīng)用的作用,有人建議使用“分析科學(xué)和技術(shù)這一名詞.3. Analyticalchemistsworktoimprovethereliabilityofexistingtechniquestomeetthedema

33、ndsforbetterchemicalmeasurementswhichariseconstantlyinoursociety.Theyadoptprovenmethodologiestonewkindsofmaterialsortoanswernewquestionsabouttheircompositionandtheirreactivitymechanisms.分析化學(xué)家致力于提升已有技術(shù)的可靠性以更好的滿足社會中頻繁出現(xiàn)的化學(xué)檢測的需求.他們將已證實的方法學(xué)應(yīng)用于新型材料,或答復(fù)關(guān)于其組成及反響機理的新問題.4. Qualitativetestsmaybeperformedbysel

34、ectivechemicalreactionsorwiththeuseofinstrumentation.Forexample,theformationofawhiteprecipitatewhenaddingasolutionofsilvernitratetoadissolvedsampleindicatesthepresenceofchloride.Infraredspectrawillgiveafingerprints“oforganiccompobedsurfcttionalgroups.定性鑒別可能通過選擇性的化學(xué)反響或者儀器分析來完成.例如當(dāng)把硝酸銀溶液滴加到一份溶解樣品中,生成白

35、色沉淀就說明了樣品中存在氯離子.而紅外光譜可以給出有機化合物或官能團的“指紋5. Thefirstphaseinthetestingofbannedsubstancesiscalledfast-screeningphase,inwhichqualitativeanalysissuchasGCorLCisadoptedtotestsuspicioussamples.Inthesecondphase,GC-MSisemployedforfurthertestingofthosesuspicioussamples.Finally,spectrophotometryorGCisappliedforac

36、curatequantification.違禁藥物檢查的第一階段稱作快速篩選階段,通常采用氣相色譜或液相色譜等定性分析方法檢查出可疑樣本；第二階段使用氣質(zhì)聯(lián)用對可疑樣本進一步檢測；最后,應(yīng)用分光光度法或氣相色譜進行準(zhǔn)確定量.Unit91. Thedevelopmentofanewtherapeuticagentinvolvesamultidisciplinarygroupinmanyyearsofwork,andwiththedevelopmentofgeneticengineeringandtheproductionofmonoclonalantibodies,itislikelythate

37、venmoreagentsshouldbeproduced.新藥研發(fā)涉及多學(xué)科研究人員多年的共同研究成果,并且隨著遺傳工程學(xué)和單克隆抗體技術(shù)的開展,人們必將研制出更多新藥.2. Theactivityofbiopharmaceuticalsdependsontheircomplicatedconformationbasedonsecondary,tertiaryandquaternarystructures.Thesestructurescannotbefullydefinedwithourpresentsetofanalyticaltechniquesandapproachesforpote

38、ncytesting.生物藥劑的活性依賴于其二級、三級和四級結(jié)構(gòu)根底上的復(fù)雜構(gòu)象,并且這些構(gòu)象采用目前的分析技術(shù)和方法還無法完全被確定并用于效能試驗.3. Apartfromtheintravenousrouteofdrugadministration,whereadrugisintroduceddirectlyintothebloodcirculation,allotherroutesofadministeringsystemicallyactingdrugsinvolvetheabsorptionofdrugfromtheplaceofadministrationintotheblood.

39、除了靜脈注射這一給藥途徑可以直接進入血液循環(huán)外,所有其他全身性作用的藥物的給藥途徑都涉及藥物從給藥地點吸收進入血液的過程.4. Biopharmaceuticalsarepharmaceuticalproductsconsistingof(glyco)proteins,andtheyhaveanumberofcharacteristicsthatsetthemasidefromlowmolecularweightdrugs.生物藥劑是含有(糖)蛋白的藥物制劑,它們具有許多與小分子量藥物不同的特性.5. Insafetytestingandclinicaltestprogramsofbiopha

40、rmaceuticals,questionshavetobeaddressedregardingspeciesspecificresponses,selectionofdosingschedulesandrouteofadministration,andthepossibleoccurrenceofimmunogenicity.在生物制劑平安性試驗和臨床試驗方案中,必須將重點放在種屬特異性應(yīng)答、給藥途徑和給藥方案的選擇以及可能發(fā)生的免疫原性上.Unit111. Theinformationthepackageinsertcontainsisderivedfromdatasuppliedbyin

41、vestigatorsandsubmittedbythepharmaceuticalfirmtotheFDA,includingthechemicalstructureofthedrug,asummaryofitspharmacologicalthetoxicologicalaction,itsclinicalindicationsandcontraindications,precautions,reportedadversereactions,dosagerecommendations,andavailabledosageforms.藥品說明書中所包含的信息來自于調(diào)查人員提供的、由藥品生產(chǎn)廠

42、家提交給FDA的數(shù)據(jù),包括藥品的化學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)、藥理/藥毒性能的概說、臨床適應(yīng)癥和禁忌癥、考前須知,有報道的不良反響、建議用量和可用劑型.2. Thephysicianmayexercisehisprofessionaljudgmentintheuseofanydrug.However,ifhedeviatesfromtheinstructionsinthepackageinsertandadversereactionsoccur,hemustbepreparedtodefendhispositionincourtifthereisamalpracticesuit.3. Ifaseverereact

43、ionoccurredandlitigationfollowed,howwouldacourtreactifaphysicianadmittedtotheuseofthisdrugforthetreatmentofsomediseasesinviewoftheprohibitionsinthepackageinsert?Wouldthepublishedclinicalstudy,plusthephysiciansjudgmentinprescribingthedrug,suffice?4. TheFDAcannotrequireapharmaceuticalfirmtoincludeanewuseforthedrugproductintheinsertevenifithasbeenclinicallytestedandfoundusefulforagivenproblem.But,ifanewuseforadrugisnotyetincludedinthepackageinsert,themanufa