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1、1. 生理學(xué)是研究生物體正常功能的一門(mén)科學(xué)。它研究生物體如何進(jìn)行各種活動(dòng),如何飲食,如何運(yùn)動(dòng),如何適應(yīng)不斷改變的環(huán)境,如何繁殖后代。這門(mén)學(xué)科包羅萬(wàn)象,涵蓋了生物體整個(gè)生命過(guò)程。生理學(xué)成功地解釋了生物體如何進(jìn)行日常活動(dòng),基于的觀點(diǎn)是生物體好比是結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜而靈巧的機(jī)器,其操作受物理和化學(xué)規(guī)律控制。盡管從生物學(xué)整個(gè)范疇看,生物體某些活動(dòng)過(guò)程是相似的,如基因編碼的復(fù)制,但許多過(guò)程還是某些生物體群組特有的。鑒于此,將這門(mén)學(xué)科分成不同部分研究如細(xì)菌生理學(xué),植物生理學(xué)和動(dòng)物生理學(xué)是有必要的。Physiology is the study of the
2、functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances,
3、;how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks i
4、s based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are si
5、milar across the whole spectrum of biologythe replication of the genetic code for examplemany are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necess
6、ary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一個(gè)動(dòng)物如何活動(dòng),首先需要了解它的構(gòu)成,要充分了解一個(gè)生物體的生理學(xué)活動(dòng)就必須掌握全面的解剖學(xué)知識(shí)。一個(gè)生物體的各部分起著什么作用可通過(guò)實(shí)驗(yàn)觀察得知。盡管我們對(duì)志愿者進(jìn)行了許多重要的生
7、理調(diào)查,但是實(shí)驗(yàn)條件需要精確控制,所以我們當(dāng)前大多生理知識(shí)還是源于對(duì)其它動(dòng)物如青蛙,兔子,貓和狗等的研究。當(dāng)我們明確大多數(shù)動(dòng)物物種的特定生理過(guò)程存在共同之處時(shí),相同的生理原理適用于人類也是合理的。通過(guò)這種方法,我們獲得了大量的知識(shí),從而讓我們對(duì)人類生理學(xué)有了更深入的了解,為我們有效治療許多疾病提供了一個(gè)堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。To study how an animal works it isfirst necessary to know how it is buil
8、t. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to esta
9、blish how particular parts perform their functions.Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the e
10、xperimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs.When
11、60;it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles
12、;will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the
13、;effective treatment of many diseases.The organization of the body3.機(jī)體的基本組成物質(zhì)是細(xì)胞,細(xì)胞結(jié)合在一起形成組織。組織的基本類型有上皮組織,結(jié)締組織,神經(jīng)組織,肌組織,每類組織都有各自的特征。許多結(jié)締組織中細(xì)胞量相對(duì)較少,但是有大量的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)。相比而言,光滑的肌組織由大量密密麻麻的肌細(xì)胞通過(guò)特定的細(xì)胞連接組成。各種器官如腦,心臟,肺,小腸和肝等由不同種類的組織聚集而成。這些器官是不同生理系統(tǒng)的組成部分。心臟和血管組成心血管系統(tǒng);肺,器官,支氣
14、管,胸壁和膈肌組成呼吸系統(tǒng);骨骼和骨骼肌組成骨骼肌系統(tǒng);大腦,脊髓,自主神經(jīng)和神經(jīng)中樞以及周圍軀體神經(jīng)組成神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)等等。3. The building blocks of the body are the cells,which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epi
15、thelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In cont
16、rast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions.Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the inte
17、stines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood&
18、#160;vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal
19、muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on. 4. 細(xì)胞在形體和功能上差異
20、很大,但是它們有某些共同的特征。第一,細(xì)胞由一層薄膜也稱細(xì)胞膜包被;第二,細(xì)胞能把大分子分解為小分子釋放能量供活動(dòng)所需;第三,在生命過(guò)程中某個(gè)階段,細(xì)胞體內(nèi)存在一個(gè)以脫氧核糖核酸(DNA)形式出現(xiàn),包含基因信息的細(xì)胞核。4.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain common characteristics. First, they are
21、160;bounded by a limiting membrane, the plasma membrane. Secondly, they have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones to liberate energy for their activi
22、ties. Thirdly, at some point in their life history, they possess a nucleus which contains genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). 5. 活體細(xì)胞不斷轉(zhuǎn)化物質(zhì)。細(xì)胞分解葡萄糖
23、和脂肪,為自身生長(zhǎng)和修復(fù)所需的蛋白質(zhì)合成和運(yùn)動(dòng)等其它活動(dòng)提供能量。這些化學(xué)變化統(tǒng)稱為新陳代謝。把大分子分解為小分子的過(guò)程稱為分解代謝,小分子合成大分子的過(guò)程稱為合成代謝。5. Living cells continually transform materials. They break down glucose and fats to provide energy for other activities such
24、 as motility and the synthesis of proteins for growth and repair. These chemical changes are collectively called metabolism. The breakdown of large molecules to smaller o
25、nes is called catabolism and the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones anabolism. 6. 細(xì)胞在進(jìn)化過(guò)程中不斷分化進(jìn)行不同的功能活動(dòng)。有些細(xì)胞具有收縮能力(如肌細(xì)胞),有些可以傳導(dǎo)電信號(hào)(如神經(jīng)細(xì)胞)。進(jìn)一步進(jìn)化的細(xì)胞能夠分泌不同物質(zhì)如荷爾蒙(如內(nèi)分泌細(xì)胞)或酶。胚胎發(fā)育過(guò)程中,分化的過(guò)程由于很多不同細(xì)胞來(lái)源于受精卵而再次發(fā)生。6. In&
26、#160;the course of evolution, cells began to differentiate to serve different functions. Some developed the ability to contract (muscle cells), others to conduct electrical signals
27、 (nerve cells). A further group developed the ability to secrete different substances such as hormones or enzymes. During embryological development, this process of differentiation
28、 is re-enacted as many different types of cell are formed from the fertilized egg. 7. 大多數(shù)組織包含有不同的細(xì)胞類型。比如,血液中含紅細(xì)胞,白細(xì)胞和血小板。紅細(xì)胞運(yùn)輸全身的氧氣。白細(xì)胞在抵御感染時(shí)起重要作用,血小板是血液凝集過(guò)程中重要的成分。結(jié)締組織有多種不同類型,但有一個(gè)共同特征,即細(xì)胞分布在豐富的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)中。神經(jīng)組織含神經(jīng)細(xì)胞和神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞。7.
29、 Most tissues contain a mixture of cell types. For example, blood consists of red cells, white cells, and platelets. Red cells transport oxygen around the body. The&
30、#160;white cells play an important role in defense against infection and the platelets are vital components in the process of blood clotting. There are a number of d
31、ifferent types of connective tissue but all are characterized by having cells distributed within an extensive noncellular matrix. Nerve tissue contains nerve cells and glial c
32、ells. 8. 大型多細(xì)胞動(dòng)物體的細(xì)胞不能產(chǎn)生氧氣和營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì),需要直接從外界環(huán)境中獲取。這些氧氣和營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)必須由血液運(yùn)送到細(xì)胞。這是血液的主要功能之一,血液憑借心臟的泵血作用在血管內(nèi)流動(dòng)循環(huán)。8. The cells of large multicellular animals cannot derive the oxygen and nutrients they need directly from t
33、he external environment. These must be transported to the cells. This is one of the principal functions of the blood, which circulates within bloodvessels by virtue of
34、60;the pumping action of the heart. The heart, blood vessels, and associated tissues form the cardiovascular system.9. 心臟有四個(gè)腔,其中有兩個(gè)心房,兩個(gè)心室構(gòu)成了一對(duì)并排存在的泵。右心室將去氧的血液泵至肺中,肺中的血液吸收空氣中的氧氣,而左心室把從肺回流來(lái)的有氧血液泵出至身體其它部位,供應(yīng)給各組織。生理學(xué)家研
35、究促使心臟跳動(dòng)的因素,心臟如何泵送血液使其循環(huán),心臟如何根據(jù)各組織所需分配血液。血漿和組織間的流動(dòng)液體交換流入淋巴系統(tǒng),最終回流到血液中。9. The heart consists of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles, which form a pair of pumps arranged side by side. T
36、he right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it absorbs oxygen from the air, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood returning from the lungs
37、60;to the rest of body to supply the tissues.Physiologists are concerned with establishing the factors responsible for the heartbeat, howthe heart pumps the blood around the
38、160;circulation, and how it is distributed to perfuse the tissues according to their needs. Fluid exchanged between the blood plasma and the tissues passes into the lymph
39、atic system, which eventually drains back into the blood.10. 機(jī)體進(jìn)行各項(xiàng)活動(dòng)所需的能量最終來(lái)源于呼吸。這一過(guò)程包括食物(主要是糖類和脂肪)的氧化,釋放它們所含的能量。這一過(guò)程中,氧氣來(lái)自于肺中的空氣,經(jīng)由血液到達(dá)全身各組織。組織呼吸活動(dòng)中釋放的二氧化碳由肺動(dòng)脈中的血液運(yùn)送至肺,然后呼氣排出體外。需回答的基本問(wèn)題如下:空氣是如何進(jìn)出肺的?呼吸的空氣量如何適應(yīng)機(jī)體所需?限制肺吸收氧氣頻率的因素是什么?10. The energy
40、 required for performing the various activities of the body is ultimately derived from respiration. This process involves the oxidation of foodstuffs to release the energy
41、0;they contain. The oxygen needed for this process is absorbed from the air in the lungs and carried to the tissues by the blood.The carbon dioxide produced by
42、the respiratory activity of the tissues is carried to the lungs by the blood in the pulmonary artery where it is excreted in the expired air. The basic question
43、s to be answered include the following: How is the air moved in and out of the lungs? How is the volume of air breathed adjusted to meet the requirements
44、160;of the body? What limits the rate of oxygen uptake in the lungs?11. 機(jī)體所需營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)來(lái)源于飲食。食物經(jīng)口腔進(jìn)入體內(nèi),在胃腸道內(nèi)經(jīng)酶將其分解成小分子物質(zhì)。這些消化物通過(guò)腸壁吸收入血液,通過(guò)門(mén)靜脈進(jìn)入肝臟。經(jīng)肝臟作用后,這些營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)能夠滿足組織生長(zhǎng)修復(fù)及能量需求。在消化系統(tǒng)部分,重要的生理學(xué)問(wèn)題是:食物是如何消化的?食物如何被個(gè)體分解消化?個(gè)體營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)如何吸收?食物如何在腸內(nèi)轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)的?未消化的殘留
45、如何從體內(nèi)排出?11. The nutrients needed bythe body are derived from the diet. Food is taken in by the mouth and broken down into its component parts by enzymes in the&
46、#160;gastrointestinal tract. The digestive products are then absorbed into the blood across the wall of the intestine and pass to the liver via the portal vein. The
47、liver makes nutrients available to the tissues both for their growth and repair and for the production of energy.In the case of the digestive system, key physiological
48、60;questions are: How is food ingested? How is it broken down and digested? How are the individual nutrients absorbed? How is the food moved through the gut? How
49、0;are the indigestible remains eliminated from the body?12. 腎臟主要功能是控制細(xì)胞外液體的形成。在這一過(guò)程中,腎臟也會(huì)把不可揮發(fā)的廢物排出去。為行使這一功能,在排出之前,腎臟產(chǎn)生含有各種成分的尿液并將其暫時(shí)儲(chǔ)存在膀胱中。這一部分主要的生理學(xué)問(wèn)題是:腎臟如何調(diào)節(jié)血液中的成分?如何排出有毒廢物?如何應(yīng)對(duì)像脫水這樣的應(yīng)激反應(yīng)?以及尿液可以存儲(chǔ)和排出體外的機(jī)制是什么?12. The chief function of
50、0;the kidneys is to control the composition of the extracellular fluid. In the course of this process, they also eliminate non-volatile waste products from the blood. To&
51、#160;perform these functions, the kidneys produce urine of variable composition which is temporarily stored in the bladder before voiding.The key physiological questions in this ca
52、se are: how do the kidneys regulate the composition of the blood? How do they eliminate toxic waste? How do they respond to stresses such as dehydration? What m
53、echanisms allow the storage and elimination of the urine? The reproductive system13.生殖是活生物體的一個(gè)基本特征。生殖腺產(chǎn)生專門(mén)的性細(xì)胞,被稱為配子。性生殖的核心是雌雄配子即精子和卵子的產(chǎn)生和融合,因此兩個(gè)獨(dú)立個(gè)體的基因特征融合而產(chǎn)生一個(gè)基因上與雙親不同的后代。 13. Reproduction is one of
54、160;the fundamental characteristics of livingorganisms. The gonads produce specialized sex cells known as gametes. At the core of sexual reproduction is the creation and fusion
55、0;of the male and female gametes, the sperm and ova (eggs), with the result that the genetic characteristics of two separate individuals are mixed to produce offspring
56、60;that differ genetically from their parents.14. 這一系統(tǒng)由骨、骨骼肌、關(guān)節(jié)和它們的相關(guān)組織組成。其主要功能是提供運(yùn)動(dòng)需要,維持姿勢(shì)及呼吸運(yùn)動(dòng)。它也為內(nèi)臟器官提供物理支持。這一部分,肌肉收縮機(jī)制是主要問(wèn)題。 內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)和神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)14. This consists of the bones of the skeleton, skeletal muscles, joint
57、s, and their associated tissues. Its primary function is to provide a means of movement, which is required for locomotion, for the maintenance of posture, and for br
58、eathing. It also provides physical support for the internal organs. Here the mechanism of muscle contraction is a central issue. The endocrine and nervous systems15.不同器官系統(tǒng)的活動(dòng)需要協(xié)作和調(diào)
59、節(jié),以便共同作用滿足機(jī)體需要。人體有兩大調(diào)節(jié)系統(tǒng):神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)和內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)。神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)通過(guò)電信號(hào)迅速將信息傳導(dǎo)給特定細(xì)胞。這樣神經(jīng)將電信號(hào)傳遞給骨骼肌以控制收縮。內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)分泌化學(xué)物質(zhì)激素。激素通過(guò)血流到達(dá)施與調(diào)節(jié)作用的細(xì)胞。激素在許多不同器官中起著重要作用,在月經(jīng)期調(diào)節(jié)和其它生殖方面尤其重要。15. The activities of the different organ systems need to be coordinatedand regulated so
60、160;that they act together to meet the needs of the body. Two coordinating systems have evolved: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system uses
61、;electrical signals to transmit information very rapidly to specific cells. Thus the nerves pass electrical signals to the skeletal muscles to control their contraction.The endocri
62、ne system secretes chemical agents, hormones, which travel in the bloodstream to the cells upon which they exert a regulatory effect. Hormones play a major role in t
63、he regulation of many different organs and are particularly important in the regulation of the menstrual cycle and other aspects of reproduction.16. 免疫系統(tǒng)通過(guò)殺死入侵的有機(jī)體,清除致病或損傷細(xì)胞為機(jī)體提供防御功能。16.
64、0;The immune system provides the bodys defenses against infection both bykilling invading organisms and by eliminating diseased or damaged cells.17. 雖然研究各器官如何行使功能很有益處,但我們必須認(rèn)識(shí)到機(jī)體作為一個(gè)整體所做的活動(dòng)依賴于各器官系統(tǒng)間錯(cuò)綜復(fù)
65、雜的相互作用。如果一部分無(wú)法正常工作,全身其它器官系統(tǒng)也會(huì)受到影響。例如,如果腎臟出現(xiàn)問(wèn)題,內(nèi)部環(huán)境的調(diào)節(jié)受損,結(jié)果導(dǎo)致其它器官系統(tǒng)功能紊亂。17. Although it is helpful to study how each organ performs its functions, it is essential to recognize that the activity of
66、 the body as a whole is dependent on the intricate interactions between the various organ systems. If one part fails, the consequences are found in other organ
67、systems throughout the whole body. For example, if the kidneys begin to fail, the regulation of the internal environment is impaired which in turn leads to disorders
68、;of function elsewhere.18. 各種復(fù)雜機(jī)制共同作用調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞外液的形成,不同個(gè)體細(xì)胞有自身機(jī)制調(diào)節(jié)內(nèi)在組成成分。盡管外界環(huán)境和動(dòng)物活動(dòng)不停變化,調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制維持著體內(nèi)環(huán)境的穩(wěn)定。內(nèi)部環(huán)境的穩(wěn)定被稱為穩(wěn)態(tài),它是機(jī)體能夠正常發(fā)揮作用所必須的。 18. Complex mechanisms are at work to regulate thecomposition of the extracell
69、ular fluid and individual cells have their own mechanisms for regulating their internal composition. The regulatory mechanisms stabilize the internal environment despite variations in
70、160;both the external world and the activity of the animal. The process of stabilization of the internal environment is called homeostasis and is essential if the cells
71、160;of the body are to function normally.19. 例如,心臟的跳動(dòng)依賴于心肌細(xì)胞有節(jié)律的收縮。這一活動(dòng)依賴于電信號(hào),而電信號(hào)反過(guò)來(lái)依賴存在于細(xì)胞外和細(xì)胞內(nèi)液體中鈉和鉀離子的濃度。如果細(xì)胞外液中鉀離子過(guò)多,心肌細(xì)胞興奮性增強(qiáng),可能出現(xiàn)不規(guī)律的收縮。因此,要維持心臟正常跳動(dòng),細(xì)胞外液中鉀離子的濃度就必須控制在一定范圍內(nèi)。19. To take one example, the beating of the
72、60;heart depends on the rhythmical contractions of cardiac muscle cells. This activity depends on electrical signals which, in turn, depend on the concentration of sodium and&
73、#160;potassium ions in the extracellular and intracellular fluids. If there is an excess of potassium in the extracellular fluid, the cardiac muscle cells become too excitable
74、 and may contract at inappropriate times rather than in a coordinated manner. Consequently, the concentration of potassium in the extracellular fluid must be kept within
75、a narrow range if the heart is to beat normally.20. 一天中,一個(gè)成人需要消耗約1千克食物,2-3升液體。以一個(gè)月計(jì)算,這相當(dāng)于約30千克食物,60-90升液體。然而,一般來(lái)說(shuō),機(jī)體體重是基本不變的。這類個(gè)體可以說(shuō)處于平衡狀態(tài)。食物和液體的攝入量相當(dāng)于正常機(jī)體活動(dòng)消耗的能量加上尿液和糞便中丟失的能量。在一些情況下,如饑餓狀態(tài),攝入量與機(jī)體所需量并不相當(dāng),肌組織斷裂,提供葡萄糖產(chǎn)生能量。蛋白質(zhì)的攝入低于肌組織斷裂的速度,機(jī)體處于負(fù)氮平衡。同樣地,如
76、果機(jī)體組織正處于生長(zhǎng)期,如生長(zhǎng)期的兒童,孕婦和早期訓(xùn)練階段的運(yùn)動(dòng)員,那么蛋白質(zhì)的日常攝入量比正常機(jī)體所需要的多。相反,此時(shí)個(gè)體處于正氮平衡。20. In the course of a day, an adult consumes approximately 1 kg of food and drinks 23 liters of fluid. In a month,
77、 this is equivalent to around 30 kg of food and 6090 liters of fluid. Yet, in general, body weight remains remarkably constant. Such individuals are said to be&
78、#160;in balance; the intake of food and drink matches the amounts used to generate energy for normal bodily activities plus the losses in urine and feces.In some cir
79、cumstances, such as starvation, intake does not match the needs of the body andmuscle tissue is broken down to provide glucose for the generation of energy. Here, th
80、e intake of protein is less than the rate of breakdown and the individual is said to have a negative nitrogen balance. Equally, if the body tissues are being
81、60;built up, as is the case for growing children, pregnant women and athletes in the early stages of training, the daily intake of protein is greater than the n
82、ormal body turnover and the individual is in positive nitrogen balance.21. 平衡的概念可以應(yīng)用到機(jī)體的任何構(gòu)成成分上,包括水和鹽,而且平衡在機(jī)體調(diào)節(jié)其自身成分上是非常重要的。攝入必須等于所需,為維持機(jī)體平衡,任何多余的能量都必須排出。此外,因?yàn)闄C(jī)體的每種化學(xué)成分都有一個(gè)可取的濃度范圍,控制機(jī)制維持這個(gè)范圍。例如,兩餐間血糖濃度大約為4-5mmol.l1 . 進(jìn)食后不久,血糖含量超過(guò)這一范圍,刺
83、激胰腺分泌胰島素,降低濃度。隨著葡萄糖濃度的下降,胰島素分泌減少。在此情況下,循環(huán)胰島素水平的改變都是為了使血漿中的葡萄糖維持在一個(gè)合適的范圍內(nèi)。這種調(diào)節(jié)稱為負(fù)反饋機(jī)制。在胰島素分泌期間,葡萄糖像肝糖原或脂肪一樣被儲(chǔ)存。21. This concept of balance can be applied to any of the body constituents including water and salt
84、and is important in considering how the body regulates its own composition. Intake must match requirements and any excess must be excreted for balance to be maintained.
85、160;Additionally, for each chemical constituent of the body there is a desirable concentration range, which the control mechanisms are adapted to maintain.For example, the concentr
86、ation of glucose in the plasma is about 45mmol.l1 between meals. Shortly after a meal, plasma glucose rises above this level and this stimulates the secretion of the
87、 hormone insulin by the pancreas, which acts to bring the concentration down. As the concentration of glucose falls, so does the secretion of insulin. In each case,&
88、#160;the changes in the circulating level of insulin act to maintain the plasma glucose at an appropriate level. This type of regulation is known as negative feedback.
89、60;During the period of insulin secretion, the glucose is being stored as either glycogen or fat. 22. 負(fù)反饋環(huán)是在機(jī)體出現(xiàn)紊亂時(shí),將一些變量控制在限定范圍內(nèi)的一個(gè)控制系統(tǒng)。雖然上面的例子講到血糖,但這一基本原則可以應(yīng)用到其它生理變量中如體溫、血壓和血漿的滲透濃度。負(fù)反饋環(huán)需要一種能對(duì)不確定的變量做出反應(yīng)而對(duì)其它生理變量不應(yīng)答的
90、傳感器。因此,滲透壓感受器應(yīng)該能對(duì)機(jī)體體液滲透的變化而不是體溫和血壓的變化產(chǎn)生應(yīng)答。感受器傳遞的信息必須和理想水平(系統(tǒng)的調(diào)定點(diǎn))以比較者的身份,以某種方式進(jìn)行比較。如果兩者不相符,一個(gè)錯(cuò)誤信號(hào)就會(huì)傳遞給效應(yīng)器,效應(yīng)器是一種能使變量保持在理想水平的系統(tǒng)。負(fù)反饋的這些特點(diǎn)可以通過(guò)檢測(cè)一種簡(jiǎn)單的加熱系統(tǒng)來(lái)理解。被控制的變量是室溫,它可以由一個(gè)溫度計(jì)檢測(cè)到,效應(yīng)器是一種加熱器。當(dāng)室溫降低到調(diào)定點(diǎn)以下時(shí),溫度計(jì)就可以監(jiān)測(cè)到溫度的變化而開(kāi)啟加熱器,對(duì)室內(nèi)進(jìn)行加溫,直到室溫升高到先前調(diào)好的調(diào)定點(diǎn),加熱器關(guān)閉。23. a negative feedback loop&
91、#160;is a control system that acts to maintain the level of some variable within a given range following a disturbance. Although the example given above refers to pl
92、asma glucose, the basic principle can be applied to other physiological variables such as body temperature, blood pressure, and the osmolality of the plasma. a negative f
93、eedback loop requires a sensor of some kind that responds to the variable in question but not to other physiological bariables, thus an osmoreceptor should respind to
94、0;changes in osmolality of the body fluids but not to changes in body temperature or blood pressure. the information from the sensor must be compared in some way
95、0;with the desired level by some form of comparator. if the two do not match ,an error signal is transmitted to an effector, a system that can act to resto
96、re the variable to its desired level .these features of negative feedback can be appreciated by examining a simple heating system .the controlled variable is room tempera
97、ture, which is sensed by a thermostat. the effector is a heater of some kind .when the room temperature falls below the set point,the temperature difference is detected by the thermostat which switches on the heater .this heats the room until the temperature reaches the
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