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1、會計學1觀察性研究中的因果推斷方法二分鐘觀察性研究中的因果推斷方法二分鐘第1頁/共44頁2Outline1234Causal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram Causal diagramDirected Acyclic Graphs (DAG)AcknowledgementIntroduction to strategies for causal inferences 第2頁/共44頁 Motivation in epidemiological resrarchs Motivation in epidemio

2、logical resrarchs BL De Stavola | Causal modellingIntroduction to strategies for causal inferences 第3頁/共44頁 因果推斷的四種基本策略因果推斷的四種基本策略l 因果圖病因模型(因果圖病因模型(casual diagramcasual diagram):): 優(yōu)優(yōu)點是利用點是利用“圖圖+ +概率概率”的方式直觀清晰的表達變的方式直觀清晰的表達變量之間的時序關(guān)系、相關(guān)關(guān)系或因果關(guān)系等多種量之間的時序關(guān)系、相關(guān)關(guān)系或因果關(guān)系等多種語義,特別清晰地表達交互效應(yīng)、效應(yīng)修飾、中語義,特別清晰地表達交互效

3、應(yīng)、效應(yīng)修飾、中介效應(yīng)、混雜偏倚、選擇偏倚和信息偏倚等多種介效應(yīng)、混雜偏倚、選擇偏倚和信息偏倚等多種因果推斷關(guān)鍵問題。缺點是主要適于分類變量間因果推斷關(guān)鍵問題。缺點是主要適于分類變量間的因果推斷。的因果推斷。l 反事實病因模型(反事實病因模型(potential-outcome potential-outcome counterfactual) modelscounterfactual) models):):我們只能得到個體我們只能得到個體u u受到干預(yù)的數(shù)據(jù)受到干預(yù)的數(shù)據(jù)YtYt,或者個體,或者個體u u沒有受到干預(yù)的沒有受到干預(yù)的數(shù)據(jù)數(shù)據(jù)YcYc,但不能同時得到這兩個數(shù)據(jù)。因此,在,但不能

4、同時得到這兩個數(shù)據(jù)。因此,在沒有假設(shè)的前提下,不可能在個體層面上進行因沒有假設(shè)的前提下,不可能在個體層面上進行因果推斷。方法是假設(shè)兩個個體是相同的,采用人果推斷。方法是假設(shè)兩個個體是相同的,采用人工隨機化或自然隨機化方式分組,觀察暴露與結(jié)工隨機化或自然隨機化方式分組,觀察暴露與結(jié)局的因果關(guān)系。優(yōu)點是能定量分析因果關(guān)系。局的因果關(guān)系。優(yōu)點是能定量分析因果關(guān)系。Greenland S, et al. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(5):1030-7.4Introduction to strategies for causal inferences 第4頁/共44頁 因果推斷的四

5、種基本策略因果推斷的四種基本策略l 充分充分/ /組合病因模型(組合病因模型( sufficient-component sufficient-component cause models cause models ):):任何疾病涉及許多組合病因的任何疾病涉及許多組合病因的結(jié)合結(jié)合, , 而這些病因成分的聯(lián)合作用而這些病因成分的聯(lián)合作用, , 即充分病因即充分病因自身的群集效應(yīng)。在解釋一些復雜病因關(guān)系上自身的群集效應(yīng)。在解釋一些復雜病因關(guān)系上, , 具有很好的直觀性和合理性具有很好的直觀性和合理性, , 是病因網(wǎng)說的一大是病因網(wǎng)說的一大發(fā)展發(fā)展, , 并具有一定的疾病防治意義。并具有一定的疾

6、病防治意義。l 結(jié)構(gòu)方程病因模型(結(jié)構(gòu)方程病因模型(structural-equations structural-equations modelsmodels):):主要是為了驗證假設(shè)的因果關(guān)系主要是為了驗證假設(shè)的因果關(guān)系,融,融合了因素分析和路徑分析的多元統(tǒng)計技術(shù),整合合了因素分析和路徑分析的多元統(tǒng)計技術(shù),整合了由因子分析所代表的潛在變量研究模型與路徑了由因子分析所代表的潛在變量研究模型與路徑分析所代表的傳統(tǒng)線性因果關(guān)系模型,特別適于分析所代表的傳統(tǒng)線性因果關(guān)系模型,特別適于定量因果關(guān)系的驗證。定量因果關(guān)系的驗證。Greenland S, et al. Int J Epidemiol. 2

7、002;31(5):1030-7.5Introduction to strategies for causal inferences 第5頁/共44頁Introduction to strategies for causal inferences Denitions of causation in the statistical literature Denitions of causation in the statistical literature BL De Stavola | Causal modelling第6頁/共44頁Causal diagramCausal Directed

8、Acyclic Graphs (DAG) Denitions of causation in the statistical literature Denitions of causation in the statistical literature BL De Stavola | Causal modelling第7頁/共44頁Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG) Denitions of causation in the statistical literature Denitions of causation in the

9、 statistical literature BL De Stavola | Causal modellingn Causal graph models (Judea Pearls framework)directed acyclic graph第8頁/共44頁Mathematically formalized bynPearl (1988, 1995, 2000)nSprites, Glymour, and Scheines (1993, 2000)9University of California, Los Angeles(UCLA)Causal diagramCausal Direct

10、ed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)n Causal graph models (Judea Pearls framework)第9頁/共44頁10Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)n Causal graph models (Judea Pearls framework)BL De Stavola | Causal modelling第10頁/共44頁11Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG) Why DAGs?E. Versio

11、n 5/2013 ngn DAGs graphically represent non-parametric structural equation models. They may look like the path models of yore, but they are far more general.Rigorous mathematical objects, support proofs Very general (nonparametric) For many purposes, DAGs are more accessible than potential outcomes

12、notation All pictures, no algebra Focus attention on causal assumptions (language of applied scientists) Great for deriving (nonparametric) identification results Great for deriving the testable implications of a causal model Intuition for understanding many problems in causal inference. Particularl

13、y helpful for complex causal models Limitations Dont display the parametric assumptions that are oftennecessary for estimation in practice. Generality can obscure important distinctions betweenestimands.第11頁/共44頁 Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG) R1D1S1D2R2D1dxD2dxS2I1I2?An Example:

14、 An Example: a causal diagram for a causal diagram for gastroesophageal reflux(gastroesophageal reflux(胃胃食管反流食管反流) and esophageal ) and esophageal diseasedisease(食管疾病)(食管疾?。? .R=reflux (反流)S=symptoms(癥狀)T=treatment(治療)I=imaging(影像表型)D=esophagus status (食管病變)Ddx=diagnosed esophagus status (診斷)TCausal

15、 diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第12頁/共44頁因果圖的基本概念(causal diagrams)(空氣污染水平)(性別)(支氣管反應(yīng))(抗哮喘治療)(哮喘發(fā)作)l 因果圖是根據(jù)變量之間的因果假定關(guān)系而因果圖是根據(jù)變量之間的因果假定關(guān)系而抽象出來的一種圖模型。圖抽象出來的一種圖模型。圖1是一個假定的是一個假定的因果圖,借此說明因果圖的基本術(shù)語:因果圖,借此說明因果圖的基本術(shù)語: 邊(邊(edge): 是連接兩個變量之間的線或是連接兩個變量之間的線或箭頭。如果兩個變量(如箭頭。如果兩個變量(如AC)直接被邊)直接被邊相連,則稱其為相連,則

16、稱其為鄰接(鄰接(adjacent),),否則稱否則稱為不鄰接(如為不鄰接(如A與與D)。直接連接兩個變量)。直接連接兩個變量的單項箭頭表示變量之間的的單項箭頭表示變量之間的直接因果關(guān)系直接因果關(guān)系(例如(例如AC )。)。 頂點(note): 是因果圖中的變量(例如,圖1中的A、B、C、E、D)。 路(path): 是由正向箭頭()、反向箭頭()或連線()不間斷地連接若干“點”而形成的路線。如,E C D、 A C D、B C E D。路中的點稱為截斷(intercept),例如,路 A C D被C截斷。引自:Greenland S. Epidemiology.1999;10(1):37-4

17、813Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第13頁/共44頁因果圖的基本概念(因果圖的基本概念(causal diagrams)(空氣污染水平)(性別)(支氣管反應(yīng))(抗哮喘治療)(哮喘發(fā)作) 因果路(因果路(causal path):是由一系列同向單是由一系列同向單向箭頭相繼連接若干點而成的路。例如,向箭頭相繼連接若干點而成的路。例如, A C D是因果路,而是因果路,而E C D則不是因則不是因果路。果路。 祖先節(jié)點(祖先節(jié)點( ancestor node )和和后代節(jié)點后代節(jié)點(descendant node): 在從變量在

18、從變量X . 變變量量Y的因果路中,變量的因果路中,變量X叫做變量叫做變量Y的祖先節(jié)的祖先節(jié)點,而變量點,而變量Y叫做變量叫做變量X的后代節(jié)點。例如,的后代節(jié)點。例如,A、B、C均是均是E、D的祖先節(jié)點,而的祖先節(jié)點,而E、D則則均是均是A、B、C的后代節(jié)點。的后代節(jié)點。引自:Greenland S. Epidemiology.1999;10(1):37-48 父母節(jié)點(父母節(jié)點(parent node)和和子女節(jié)點子女節(jié)點(child node):連接變量:連接變量X與變量與變量Y的直的直接因果路接因果路X Y中的變量中的變量X叫做變量叫做變量Y父母節(jié)點,而變量父母節(jié)點,而變量Y叫做變量叫做

19、變量X的子女節(jié)的子女節(jié)點。例如,點。例如,A、C是是E的父母節(jié)點,而的父母節(jié)點,而C、E是是A的子女節(jié)點。的子女節(jié)點。14Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第14頁/共44頁因果圖的基本概念(因果圖的基本概念(causal diagrams)(空氣污染水平)(A和B共享的共同祖先節(jié)點集)(支氣管反應(yīng))(抗哮喘治療)(哮喘發(fā)作) 共享祖先節(jié)點(共享祖先節(jié)點(sharing ancestors): 在因果圖中連接兩個變量在因果圖中連接兩個變量X、Y之間的之間的雙向箭頭(雙向箭頭(X Y)通常用于表示這)通常用于表示這兩個變量共享一個

20、或多個祖先節(jié)點兩個變量共享一個或多個祖先節(jié)點(共同原因),但這些祖先節(jié)點以及(共同原因),但這些祖先節(jié)點以及它們之間的內(nèi)在關(guān)系在因果圖中未表它們之間的內(nèi)在關(guān)系在因果圖中未表示出來(未觀察或測量)。通常,在示出來(未觀察或測量)。通常,在因果圖中用因果圖中用帶有虛線箭頭的字母帶有虛線箭頭的字母U表示表示這些未加定義的共享祖先,這些未加定義的共享祖先,U可能是多可能是多個變量。個變量。引自:Greenland S. Epidemiology.1999;10(1):37-48(性別)例如,例如,在空氣污染水平高的時期內(nèi),兒童在家避免戶外活動,既可以減少污染物在空氣污染水平高的時期內(nèi),兒童在家避免戶外

21、活動,既可以減少污染物暴露水平,有可以獨立地減少過敏原接觸機會而降低哮喘發(fā)作風險。暴露水平,有可以獨立地減少過敏原接觸機會而降低哮喘發(fā)作風險。15Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第15頁/共44頁因果圖的基本概念(因果圖的基本概念(causal diagrams)(空氣污染水平)(性別)(抗哮喘治療)(哮喘發(fā)作) 關(guān)聯(lián)(關(guān)聯(lián)(association ): 兩個變量間不帶箭兩個變量間不帶箭頭的連接(頭的連接(XY)表示因某種原因具有相)表示因某種原因具有相關(guān)性而非共享祖先節(jié)點或一個影響到另一關(guān)性而非共享祖先節(jié)點或一個影響到另一個

22、變量。通常,用不帶箭頭的虛線表示在個變量。通常,用不帶箭頭的虛線表示在因果圖中為關(guān)聯(lián)原因未定義(或未測量)。因果圖中為關(guān)聯(lián)原因未定義(或未測量)。圖圖3中定義了中定義了A和和B之間的關(guān)聯(lián)性,但其原之間的關(guān)聯(lián)性,但其原因未觀察或測量。因未觀察或測量。引自:Greenland S. Epidemiology.1999;10(1):37-48 有向無環(huán)圖(有向無環(huán)圖(directed acyclic graphy, DAG): 所有邊均帶箭頭的圖叫所有邊均帶箭頭的圖叫有向圖有向圖,即有向圖中不含無方向的邊;而,如果一個有向圖無法從某個頂點出發(fā)經(jīng)過若干即有向圖中不含無方向的邊;而,如果一個有向圖無法從

23、某個頂點出發(fā)經(jīng)過若干條邊回到該點,則這個圖是一個有向無環(huán)圖(條邊回到該點,則這個圖是一個有向無環(huán)圖(DAG)。例如,)。例如,圖圖1和和圖圖2均為有均為有向無環(huán)圖。向無環(huán)圖。 DAGs是因果推斷的基本模型。是因果推斷的基本模型。16Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第16頁/共44頁17 Directed Acyclic Graphs(DAGs)and Causal DAGs n DAGs are “directed” in that each arrow is single headed, expressing a singl

24、e causal statement, e.g. T directly causes C. (Well meet bi-headed arrows later.)n DAGs are “acyclic” in that they contain no directed(“The future cannot directly or indirectly cause the past.”). n Causal DAGs include all common causes of any pair of variables already included in the DAG. . E.g., th

25、ere is no variable U3 with direct effects into U2 and T.n Causal DAGs encode the qualitative causal assumptions of the data-enerating model (“model-of-how-the-world-works”) against which all inferences must be judged. n Specifically, the DAG must capture the causal structure of 1). How the variables

26、 take their values in “nature”; 2). What variables and values are ollectedCausal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第17頁/共44頁因果圖的基本概念(因果圖的基本概念(causal diagrams) 后門路(后門路(backdoor path): 因果圖因果圖1,從,從E到到D的所的所有路中,有箭頭指向有路中,有箭頭指向E的所有非因果路,叫后門路。的所有非因果路,叫后門路。包括:包括:EACD、ECD、ECBD、EACBD。 前門路(前門路(frontdoor

27、 path): 因果圖因果圖1中,從中,從A到到D的所有路中,從的所有路中,從A發(fā)出的所有非直接因果路,叫前發(fā)出的所有非直接因果路,叫前門路。包括:門路。包括:ACD、AC ED、AED、ACBD。 碰撞節(jié)點(碰撞節(jié)點(collides): 在后門路在后門路EACBD中,有中,有2個箭頭同時指向個箭頭同時指向C,則,則C稱為碰撞節(jié)點。稱為碰撞節(jié)點。引自:Greenland S. Epidemiology.1999;10(1):37-48(空氣污染水平)(支氣管反應(yīng))(抗哮喘治療)(哮喘發(fā)作)(性別) 阻塞路(阻塞路(blocked path)和未阻塞路()和未阻塞路(unblocked pat

28、h): 如果某通路中含有一如果某通路中含有一個或多個碰撞節(jié)點,則該路為個或多個碰撞節(jié)點,則該路為阻塞路阻塞路,否則為,否則為未阻塞路未阻塞路。例如,圖。例如,圖1中的后門路中的后門路EACBD在在C處被阻塞,而路處被阻塞,而路E A C D為未阻塞路,因為該路中為未阻塞路,因為該路中不含任何碰撞節(jié)點。不含任何碰撞節(jié)點。18Causal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第18頁/共44頁 Causal diagram (DAG)-Paths and its Colliders n n Target path: X Y Causal diagr

29、amCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第19頁/共44頁n Back-door path: A path that connects X to Y is a back-door path from X to Y if it has an arrowhead pointing to X. e.g. X U1Y; X U2Y. n Front-door path: A path that connects X to Y is a front-door path from X to Y if it has an non-direct causal path ar

30、rowhead emanating from X. e.g. X T C Y. n Blocked path & Unblocked path: A path is blocked if it has one or more colliders; otherwise it is unblocked. e.g. U1 X U2. n Conditioning: Examining the distribution of one variable within levels of another by regression adjustment, stratification, restr

31、iction(Subgroup analysis), or caused by Sample selection, Attrition, censoring, nonresponse. 20 Causal diagram (DAG)- backdoor path & frontdoor pathTarget path: X Y n Causal path: A directed path from X node to Y is one that can be traced through a sequence of single headed arrows, always enteri

32、ng an arrow through the tail and leaving through the head; X T C Y. .XYCausal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)第20頁/共44頁 Causal diagram - causal paths, confounding paths and colliding causal paths, confounding paths and colliding pathspaths.n All DAGs can be constructed from just three ele

33、mentscausal paths, confounding paths and colliding pathsthe very elements that give rise to all associations via causation, confounding and collider variable. causal pathconfounding path colliding paths Sources of Association Between Two Variables A & BCausal diagramCausal Directed Acyclic Graph

34、s (DAG)第21頁/共44頁 Causal diagram - causal paths, confounding paths and colliding causal paths, confounding paths and colliding pathspaths.causal pathconfounding path colliding paths Sources of Bias in Estimating the Causal Effect of A on B0|,ACE B A CAC01BACBPLogitACP01BABPLogitAPCausal diagramCausal

35、 Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG)0+1BACBPLogitACP第22頁/共44頁XGXGZXG Pearls do-calculus Causal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagramRule 1 Rule 1 Insertion/deletion of observations:Insertion/deletion of observations:w)do(x),|P(yw)z,do(x),|P(yXGW)X,|Z(Y ifXYWZXYWZGXGRule 2Rule 2 Action

36、/observation exchange:Action/observation exchange:w)z,do(x),|P(yw)do(z),do(x),|P(yZXGW)X,|Z(Y ifZYWXZYWXGXZGRule 3 Rule 3 Insertion/deletion of actions:Insertion/deletion of actions:w)do(x),|P(yw)do(z),do(x),|P(yXZ(W)G(YZ|X,W)ifwhere Z(W) is the set of Z-nodes that are not ancestors of any W-node XY

37、WZ1Z2XYWZ1Z2GXZ(W)G第23頁/共44頁24n The quantity Pt(s) is identifiable if, given the Causal diagram G, the quantity Pt(s) can be determined from the distribution of the observed variables P(n) alone. The possibility of separating causal from noncausal associations with ideal data .n Three strategies: Gr

38、aphical Identification CriteriaXYXXXYYYCausal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第24頁/共44頁 如果連接兩個變量(或變量集合)的所有路均被關(guān)閉,則如果連接兩個變量(或變量集合)的所有路均被關(guān)閉,則稱為兩個變量(兩個變量集合)被有向分隔,否則被有向稱為兩個變量(兩個變量集合)被有向分隔,否則被有向連接。有向分隔包括右圖的三種情形:連接。有向分隔包括右圖的三種情形: 1)路中含碰撞節(jié)點(路中含碰撞節(jié)點(E M1 D); 2)對因果路的中介變量施加條件(對因果路的中介變

39、量施加條件( E M2 D ); 3)對混雜路上的混雜因子施加條件(對混雜路上的混雜因子施加條件( E M3 D )。)。有向分隔后,有向分隔后,E與與D條件獨立,即符合馬爾科夫準則。在因條件獨立,即符合馬爾科夫準則。在因果推斷中,有向分隔準則是識別和創(chuàng)建變量獨立性的有力果推斷中,有向分隔準則是識別和創(chuàng)建變量獨立性的有力工具。工具。 如果對如果對SC1,C2施加條件,則施加條件,則E與與D被有向分隔。被有向分隔。l 有向分隔準則(有向分隔準則( D-separation/ )和有向連接準則()和有向連接準則( D-connectedness ) M2EDM1M32502()2DEMLogit

40、PEM03()3DEMLogit PEM Graphical Identification Criteria- d-Separation CriterionCausal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第25頁/共44頁 Graphical Identification Criteria- d-Separation Criterion26n d-Separation : A path P is said to be “d-separated” (or “blocked”) by a conditioning s

41、et of nodes Z iff 1) P contains a chain XZ2 Y or a confounding paths XZ3 Y such that the middle node M is in Z, or 2) P contains a colliding path XZ1 Y such that neither the middle node Z, nor any descendant of Z, is in Z. Z2XYZ1Z302()2DXZLogit PXZ03()3DXZLogit PXZn d-connected: A path P is said to

42、be “d-connected” (or “unblocked” or “open”) by a conditioning set of nodes Z iff it is not dseparated.n Note: Z may be the empty set . (See Pearl 2009)n Theorem: If two sets of variables X and Y aredseparated by Z along all paths in a DAG, then X s statistically independent of Y conditional on Z in

43、every distribution compatible with the DAG. Conversely, if X and Y are not d-separated by Z alongall paths in the DAG, then X and Y are dependent conditional on Z in at least one distribution compatible with the DAG.Causal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第26頁/共44頁 Graphical

44、 Identification Criteria- d-Separation Criterion27n One important use of DAGs is that they support the derivation of all testable (structural) implications of a model. n Using the d-separation/blocking criterion, we can read all implied marginal and conditional dependences and independences off the

45、DAG.Causal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第27頁/共44頁 Graphical Identification Criteria- Adjustment Criterion28n A set of variables Z (which may be empty) fulfills the adjustment criterion relative to the total causal effectof T on Y iff 1). Z blocks all noncausal paths from

46、 T to Y, and 2). No element of Z is on a causal path from T to Y or descends from a variable on a causal path from T to Y. n The adjustment criterion is “complete,” meaning that it detects all, and only those, sets of variables Z that identify the effect of T on Y by simply conditioning on Z. (Shpit

47、ser et al. 2010)U is unobservedn One way to interpret this with DAGs, is to note that the total causal effect of T on Y is identifiable if one can condition on (“adjust for”) a set of variables Z that1) blocks all non-causal paths between T and Y, 2) without blocking any causal paths between T and Y

48、.n Equivalently: d-separate T and Y along all noncausal paths while leaving all causal paths d-connected.0|,XTE Y X TXTTYCausal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第28頁/共44頁 設(shè)設(shè)S是后門路上的節(jié)點的集合,若是后門路上的節(jié)點的集合,若S滿足滿足如下如下2準則:準則:1)S不包含不包含E的后代節(jié)點的后代節(jié)點 ;2)對對S施加條件后,沒有開放的后門路,即可施加條件后,沒有開放的后門路,

49、即可將所有后門路關(guān)閉。此時,稱將所有后門路關(guān)閉。此時,稱S滿足后門準滿足后門準則。關(guān)閉所有后門路后,才能推斷暴露則。關(guān)閉所有后門路后,才能推斷暴露(E)對結(jié)局()對結(jié)局(D)的因果作用。)的因果作用。 在在S中,找到充分小的子集,并對其進行中,找到充分小的子集,并對其進行調(diào)整,是關(guān)閉所有門路的關(guān)鍵。例如,右調(diào)整,是關(guān)閉所有門路的關(guān)鍵。例如,右圖中,圖中,SC,U1,U,但僅對,但僅對C和和U兩個已觀兩個已觀測變量施加條件(調(diào)整),即能關(guān)閉所有測變量施加條件(調(diào)整),即能關(guān)閉所有后門路。后門路。29 Graphical Identification Criteria- Backdoor Crit

50、erionCausal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第29頁/共44頁 Graphical Identification Criteria- Backdoor Criterion30n A set of variables Z =X satisfies thebackdoor criterion relative to an ordered pair of variables (T,Y) in a DAG if: 1) no node in Z is a descendant of T, and 2) Z

51、blocks (d-separates) every path between T and Y that contain an arrow into T. If Z satisfies the back-door criterion relative to (T, Y), then the causal effect of T on Y is identifiableTY(y|()(y|do(), )P( |do()(y| , )P( )xxPdo TtPTt xxTtPt xxSmokingLung CancerTar Depositsn We compute in two steps:)|

52、(xyP( |( )( | )P z do xP z x1)2)( |( )( | , ) ( | )xP y do zP y x z P x z( |( )( | )( |, ) ( )zxP y do xP z xP y x z P xPutting things together:Backdoor criterion-based check identification:1) List all backdoor paths connecting T and Y.2) Check whether all backdoor paths are naturally (unconditional

53、ly) blocked. Yes: identified. No: move on.3) Check whether the unblocked paths can be blocked by conditioning on non-descendants of T. Yes: move on. No:not identified.4) Check whether Step 3 unblocked any non-causal paths and then check if those can be blocked. Yes: move on.No: not identified.5) Che

54、ck whether any of the variables that must be conditioning on to block backdoor paths are on the causal pathway from T to Y or are descendants of a variable on the causal pathway. Yes: Not identified. No: identified.Causal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagramRule 2 and Rule 3 of

55、 do-calculusule3:P( |do()P( )RxTtxule2: (y|do(), )(y| , )RPTt xPt x第30頁/共44頁 設(shè)設(shè)S是前門路上的節(jié)點的集合,若是前門路上的節(jié)點的集合,若S滿足如下滿足如下3準則:準則:1)S阻斷了所有從暴露(阻斷了所有從暴露(E)到結(jié)局()到結(jié)局(D)因果路;)因果路;2)從從暴露(暴露(E)到)到S不存在后門路;不存在后門路;3)從從S到結(jié)局(到結(jié)局(D)的所)的所有后門路均被暴露(有后門路均被暴露(E)關(guān)閉。此時,稱)關(guān)閉。此時,稱S滿足前門準則。滿足前門準則。開放所有前門路后,才能推斷開放所有前門路后,才能推斷E D的因果作用。

56、的因果作用。 右圖中,右圖中,M 滿足前門準則,且前門路滿足前門準則,且前門路E M D開開放。若推斷放。若推斷E對對D的因果作用,可利用前門準則。先估的因果作用,可利用前門準則。先估計計E M,此時需關(guān)閉,此時需關(guān)閉E U D M (因(因D是碰撞是碰撞節(jié)點,故自然關(guān)閉),節(jié)點,故自然關(guān)閉), 故故E M為為1;再估計再估計M D,此時需通過調(diào)整此時需通過調(diào)整E關(guān)閉關(guān)閉M E U D得到得到2。所以。所以E對對D的因果作用為的因果作用為1 *2。 當存在未觀測到的混雜因子時,前門準則更有優(yōu)勢。當存在未觀測到的混雜因子時,前門準則更有優(yōu)勢。吸煙肺癌肺部尼古丁沉積未觀察混雜1231 Graphi

57、cal Identification Criteria- Front-door CriterionCausal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagram第31頁/共44頁 Graphical Identification Criteria- Front-door Criterion32TYn A set of variables Z =C is said to satisfy the front-door criterion relative to an ordered pair of variables (T, Y)

58、 if 1) Z intercepts all directed paths from T to Y; 2) there is no back-door path from T to Z; 3) all back-door paths from Z to Y are closed by T.n If Z satisfies the front-door criterion relative to (T,Y) and if P(t,z) 0, then the causal effect of T on Y is identifiable and is given by formula:n Th

59、e front-door criterion may be obtained by a double application of the back-door criterion, as shown in the tar deposits examplen In the smoking-lung cancer model with genotype and tar, we may use the front-door criterion and get:) (), |()|()(xzxxPzxyPxzPyPSmokingLung CancerTar Deposits(y|()(|)(y|,)P

60、()TPdo TtP Cc TtP YTt CcTtCausal Effect Identification-in the Perspective of Causal diagramRule 2 and Rule 3ule2: (|()(|)RPT t doC cPC c T tule2,3:(y|()=(y|,)P()TRP Ydo CcP YTt CcTt第32頁/共44頁 在推斷暴露(在推斷暴露(E)對結(jié)局()對結(jié)局(D)的因果作用時,)的因果作用時,如果存在一個變量(如果存在一個變量(G),滿足:),滿足: 1)G對對E有因果作用;有因果作用; 2) G與混雜(與混雜(U)獨立;)獨立; 3)給定)給定E和

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