考研英語翻譯歷年真題

1、【精品文檔】如有侵權(quán)，請聯(lián)系網(wǎng)站刪除，僅供學習與交流考研英語翻譯歷年真題.精品文檔.1、1994年Directions:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET 2. According to the new school of scientists, technology is an overlooked force in expandi

2、ng the horizons of scientific knowledge. (71) Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools. (72) "In short" , a leader of the new school contends, "the scientific revoluti

3、on, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable directions. " (73)Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and p

4、hilosophers of science. The modern school that hails technology algues that such masters as Galileo, Newton, Maxwell, Einstein, and inventors such as Edison attached great importance to, and derived great benefit from, craft information and technological devices of different kinds that were usable i

5、n scientific experiments.The centerpiece of the argument of a technology-yes , genius-no advocate was an analysis of Galileo' s role at the start of the scientific revolution. The wisdom of the day was derived from Ptolemy, an astronomer of the second century, whose elaborate system of the sky p

6、ut Earth at the center of all heavenly motions. (74) Galileo' s greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth. But the real hero of the story, according to

7、the new school of scientists, was the long evolution in the improvement of machinery for making eyeglasses . Federal policy is necessarily involved in the technology vs. genius dispute. (75)Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice vers

8、a (反之) often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.精美譯文新學派的科學家認為，技術(shù)是擴大科學知識的范圍中被忽視的力量。（71）他們說，科學的發(fā)展與其說源于天才偉人的真知灼識，不如說源于改進了的技術(shù)和工具等等更為普通的東西。（72）新學派的一位領(lǐng)袖人物堅持說:“簡言之，我們所稱謂的科學革命，主要是指一系列器具的改進、發(fā)明和使用，這些改進、發(fā)明和使用使科學發(fā)展的范圍無所不及。（73）工具和技術(shù)本身作為根本性創(chuàng)新的源泉多年來在很大程度上被科學史學家和科學思想家們忽視了。為技術(shù)而歡呼的現(xiàn)代學派爭辯說，像伽利略

9、、牛頓、麥克斯威爾、愛因斯坦這樣的科學大師和像愛迪生這樣的發(fā)明家十分重視科學實驗中能使用的各種不同的工藝信息和技術(shù)裝置并從中受益匪淺。鼓吹技術(shù)第一、天才第二的論據(jù)的核心是分析了科學革命初期伽利略的作用。那時的聰明才智取自第二世紀的天文學家托勒密;了精心創(chuàng)立的太空體系把地球置于所有天體運動的中心。（74）伽利略的最光輝的業(yè)績在于他在1609年第一個把新發(fā)明的望遠鏡對準天空，以證實行星是圍繞太陽旋轉(zhuǎn)，而不是圍繞地球。但是，在新學派科學家看來，這件事中真正重要的因素是制造鏡片的機械長期以來不斷的改進和發(fā)展。聯(lián)邦政府的政策必然要卷入到技術(shù)與天才之爭中去。（75）政府究竟是以減少對技術(shù)的經(jīng)費投入來增加對

10、純理論科學的經(jīng)費投入，還是相反，這往往取決于把哪一方看作是驅(qū)動力量。題目解析：(71 ) 、Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：賓語從句的主句Science / moves forward, / 主句 插入結(jié)構(gòu)they say, / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 not so much 原因狀語結(jié)構(gòu)through / 多重定

11、語the insights / of great men / of genius / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 as 原因狀語結(jié)構(gòu)because of / more ordinary things / 舉例like / improved techniques and tool.詞義推敲：move forward：向前發(fā)展。they say：間接引語作插入結(jié)構(gòu)前置。they：指代the new school of scientists技巧：單復數(shù)對應：according to saynot so much. as. 是as as （和一樣多）的否定形式，理解為：“與其倒不如”。through因為技巧：not

12、so much. as是個并列結(jié)構(gòu)，也就是說so和as后面應該兩個詞的意思應該相同，所以多義介詞through的意思應該等于because of因為，由于。the insights / of great men / of genius：天才偉人的真知灼見。多重后置定語后浪推前浪，從后往前翻譯。insights：the capacity to discern the true nature of a situation; penetration 洞察力；心智的敏銳真知灼見，遠見卓識genius：天才more ordinary things like improved techniques and

13、 tool這是結(jié)構(gòu)是介詞like短語做定語修飾中心詞more ordinary things，也是先翻譯定語，再翻譯中心詞：像改進了的技術(shù)和工具等更為普通的東西。like：such as參考譯文：新學派科學家們說，科學之所以發(fā)展，與其說是因為天才偉人的真知灼見，不如說是因為像改進了的技術(shù)和工具等更為普通的東西。得分重點：插入結(jié)構(gòu)，并列結(jié)構(gòu)，原因狀語結(jié)構(gòu)(72)、 "In short" , a leader of the new school contends, "the scientific revolution, as we call it, was large

14、ly the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable directions. "結(jié)構(gòu)分析：直接引語作賓語從句 介詞短語作狀語“In short,” / 主句a leader / of the new school / contends, / “直接引語中的主語the scientific revolution, / 插入結(jié)構(gòu)as we call it, 直接引語中的謂語/ was largely / 多重

15、定語the improvement and invention and use of / a series of / instruments / 定語從句 主語that / 謂語expanded / the reach / of science / 介詞短語作方式狀語in innumerable direction.”詞義推敲：in short 簡而言之a(chǎn) leader of the new school contends：新學派的一位領(lǐng)導人物說/認為school學派。contend：to maintain or assert 主張或聲稱the scientific revolution：科學

16、革命revolution：A sudden or momentous change in a situation 大變革在一情況下的突然或瞬時改變as we call it我們所稱之謂的，我們所說的largely：for the most part; mainly 大部分地；主要地the improvement and invention and use of / a series of / instruments 一系列器具的改進、發(fā)明和使用。a series of一系列expand擴大，張開reach range or scope of influence or effect. 影響力產(chǎn)生

17、影響或效果的范圍或領(lǐng)域參考譯文：“簡而言之”，新學派的一位領(lǐng)袖人物堅持說，“我們所謂的科學革命，主要是指一系列器具的改進、發(fā)明和使用，而（這些改進、發(fā)明和使用 / 這）（使科學發(fā)展的范圍無所不及 / 使科學發(fā)展無所不及 / 在無數(shù)方面拓展了科學的領(lǐng)域）。”得分重點：插入結(jié)構(gòu)，定語從句，方式狀語(73 )、Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of s

18、cience.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：73) 介詞短語作時間狀語Over the years, / 主語tools and technology / 反身代詞themselves / 后置定語as / 多重定語a source of / fundamental innovation 謂語 / 被動結(jié)構(gòu)have largely been ignored / 方式狀語by historians / and philosophers of science.詞義推敲：over the years 多年來a source of fundamental innovation：根本革新的源泉fundamental：of

19、or relating to the foundation or base; elementary 基礎(chǔ)的基礎(chǔ)或基本的或與此有關(guān)的；根本的innovation：the act of introducing something new 革新介紹新東西的行為tools and technology.have largely been ignored by . 很大程度上被忽視philosophers of science 科學思想家們參考譯文：多年來，工具和技術(shù)本身作為根本性創(chuàng)新的源泉（多年來）在很大程度上被歷史學家和科學思想家們忽視了。得分重點：反身代詞，被動結(jié)構(gòu)(74)、 Galileo

20、9; s greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：74) 主句 專有名詞Galileo's greatest glory / was / 表語從句that 時間狀語in 1609 / 從句主句he / was / the first person /

21、 多重定語to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens / 目的狀語to prove / 賓語從句that 并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 主語the planets / 謂語revolve / around the sun / rather than 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 省略結(jié)構(gòu)（revolve）around the earth.詞義推敲：Galileo 伽利略專有名詞greatest glory was that：最偉大的成就是glory：a highly praiseworthy asset 引以為豪的東西 成就，業(yè)績，貢獻that：引導表語從句不做成分，沒

22、有實際含義。而漢語又沒有這樣的形式上的要求，所以不譯。turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens 把新發(fā)明的望遠鏡對準天空turn on 轉(zhuǎn)向?qū)?，觀察to prove that：用以證明，去證明that 引導賓語從句，既不作成分，也沒有實際含義。rather than而不是the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the earth 行星圍繞太陽轉(zhuǎn)，而不是圍繞地球轉(zhuǎn)revolve：繞轉(zhuǎn)，旋轉(zhuǎn)參考譯文：伽利略的最（光輝業(yè)績/偉大的成就）在于（他在1609年/在1609年他是）

23、第一個把新發(fā)明的望遠鏡對準天空，以（證實/證明）行星是圍繞太陽旋轉(zhuǎn)而不是圍繞地球旋轉(zhuǎn)的。得分重點：表語從句，賓語從句，專有名詞，并列結(jié)構(gòu)(75)、Whether the Government should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice versa (反之) often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：（75)、并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 主語從句 Whether / 主語the Governme

24、nt / 謂語should increase / 多重定語the financing of / pure science 介詞短語作狀語結(jié)構(gòu)/ at the expense of / technology / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 or / 固定短語vice versa / 狀語結(jié)構(gòu)often / 謂語depends on / the issue / of 賓語從句which / （指代關(guān)系） 被動結(jié)構(gòu)is seen / as the driving force.詞義推敲：whether or 究竟是還是the Government：特指Federal Government。increase the f

25、inancing of：增加對的資金投入finance：to supply funds to 給提供資金pure science 純理論科學at the expense of 由付費，以為代價vice versa 反之亦然 relations being reversedincrease the financing of pure science at the expense of technology vice versa （還是通過 / 以減少對純理論科學的投入而增加對技術(shù)的投入 / 還是相反）the issue of：問題issue：a point or matter of discus

26、sion, debate, or dispute 爭議，辯論爭議、爭論、爭執(zhí)的要點或事件of which：它們中的（pure science 和technology中的）哪一個引導賓語從句，因為：1、which 是賓語從句的主語，而不是定語從句的賓語；2、of which 的結(jié)構(gòu)無法還原到后面的從句；3、which不等于issue，不是定語從句引導詞，而是疑問代詞。is seen as：被動結(jié)構(gòu)，可以翻譯成主動結(jié)構(gòu)“把哪一方看成”the driving force 驅(qū)動力參考譯文：政府究竟是以（減少對技術(shù)經(jīng)費的投入/犧牲技術(shù)作為代價）來增加對純理論科學的經(jīng)費投入，還是相反，這往往取決于把哪一方

27、看作是驅(qū)動力量。得分重點：主語從句，并列結(jié)構(gòu)，賓語從句，被動結(jié)構(gòu)2、1995年Directions:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET 2. The standardized educational or psychological test that are widely used to aid in selecting, clas

28、sifying, assigning, or promoting students, employees, and military personnel have been the target of recent attacks in books, magazines, the daily press, and even in congress. (71)The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, critics divert attention form the fault that lies with ill-informed or

29、incompetent users. The tests themselves are merely tools , with characteristics that can be measured with reasonable precision under specified conditions. Whether the results will be valuable , meaningless, or even misleading depends partly upon the tool itself but largely upon the user .All informe

30、d predictions of future performance are based upon some knowledge of relevant past performance: school grades, research productivity, sales records, or whatever is appropriate. (72)How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount , reliability , and appropriate

31、ness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted. Anyone who keeps careful score knows that the information available is always incomplete and that the predictions are always subject to error.Standardized tests should be considered in this context. They provide a

32、 quick, objective method of getting some kinds of information about what a person learned , the skills he has developed, or the kind of person he is. The information so obtained has, qualitatively, the same advantages and shortcomings as other kinds of information. (73)Whether to use tests. other ki

33、nds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefore, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.(74)In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined a

34、nd least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted cannot be well defined. Properly used, they provide a rapid means of getting comparable information about many people Sometimes they identify students whose high potential has not been previously recognized, but there are many things they

35、 do not do.(75)For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.精美譯文：標準化教育測試或心理同在廣泛應用于協(xié)助選拔、委派或提拔學生、雇員和軍事人員;這些測試一直是某些人近年來在書本、雜志、日報，甚至國會中進行抨擊的目標。（71）把標準化測試作為抨擊目

36、標是錯誤的，因為在抨擊這類測試時，批評者沒有注意到其弊病來自測試使用者對測試不解或使用不當。這些測試本身只是一種工具。它的各種特性可以在規(guī)定條件下用適當?shù)木葋頊y定。測試的結(jié)果是在有價值的、無意義的、還是誤導的，部分取決于這種工具本身，但主要取決于測試使用者。所有對未來表現(xiàn)的有見識地的預測都是以在某種程度上了解有關(guān)過去的表現(xiàn)為基礎(chǔ)的:學校學習成績、研究效益、銷售記錄或任何符合需要的信息。（72）這些預測在多大程度上為的后來的表現(xiàn)所證實，這取決于所采用信息的數(shù)量、可靠性和適宜性，以及解釋這些信息的技能和才智。任何仔細記分的人都知道，所得到的信息總是不完全的，而且這些預測也總是會有錯誤的。應該根據(jù)

37、這種觀點去考察標準化測試。標準化測試提供了快速、客觀地得到某些信息的方法，這些信息是有關(guān)一個人所學到的知識、他所獲得的技能，或者他是屬于哪一類型的人。這樣得到的信息，從性質(zhì)上講，與其它種類的信息一樣具有優(yōu)點或缺點。（73）因此，在某一特定情況下，究竟是采用測試還是其他種類的信息，或是兩者兼用，須憑有關(guān)相對效度的經(jīng)驗依據(jù)而定，也取決于諸如費用和有無來源等因素。（74）一般來說，當所要測定的特征能很精確界定時，測試最為有效;而當所要測定或預測的東西不能明確地界定時，測試的效果則最差。這些測試如能恰當使用，就能提供一種快速的方法來獲得有關(guān)許多人的可比性信息。有時這些測試能鑒別出一些學生，他們很高的潛

38、在能力過去一直沒有被承認。但是也有入場多事情這些測試是不能勝任的。（75）例如，測試并不彌補明顯的社會不公;因此，它們不能說明一個物質(zhì)條件差的年輕人，如果在較好的環(huán)境下成長的話，會有多大才干。題目解析：71 )、The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, critics divert attention form the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：71) 主句The target / is / wrong, / 原因狀語從句for / 狀語結(jié)構(gòu)in

39、 / attacking / the tests, / 從句的主句critics / divert attention from / the fault / 定語從句 主語that / 謂語 固定短語lies with / ill-informed / or incompetent users.詞義推敲：The target 根據(jù)上下文，這里特指標準化測試for in attacking the tests：因為在抨擊測試的過程中for：因為in：在過程中attack：攻擊，抨擊。critics：one who forms and expresses judgments of the meri

40、ts, faults, value, or truth of a matter 評論家形成并表達對某一事物的優(yōu)點、錯誤、價值或真實性的判斷的人divert attention from 原義是引開，引申為沒有注意到，忽略lies with 在于ill-informed 不甚了解，消息不靈通的參考譯文：把標準化測試作為抨擊的目標是錯誤的，因為在抨擊這類測試時，批評者沒有（注意到 / 忽略了）（測試的弊病在于使用測試的人對測試不甚了解或使用不當 / 批評家沒有注意到錯誤是由消息不靈通或者不能勝任的使用者造成的）。得分重點：插入結(jié)構(gòu)，原因狀語從句，定語從句72 )How well the predi

41、ctions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount , reliability , and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：72) 主語從句How well / 從句的主語the predictions / 從句的謂語 被動結(jié)構(gòu)will be validated / by later performance / 謂語 并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 固定短語

42、depends upon / 多重定語the amount, / reliability, / and appropriateness / of the information / used / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 and 省略結(jié)構(gòu)（depends）on / the skill / and wisdom / 定語從句with which / （指代關(guān)系）it / 被動結(jié)構(gòu)is interpreted.詞義推敲：How well the predictions will be validated by：在多大程度上為所證實be validated by：為所證實。被動結(jié)構(gòu)最好少用“被”字。validat

43、e：to establish the soundness of; orroborate 證實建立的正確性；確證depends upon 取決于the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used：所采用信息的數(shù)量、可靠性和適應性amount：a number 數(shù)字；數(shù)量reliability 可靠性，信度validity效度appropriate：suitable for a particular person, condition, occasion, or place; fitting 適合于的適合于某特定

44、的人，條件，事件或地點的；適宜的with which it is interpreted定語從句Which指代the skill and wisdom。it指代the information。參考譯文：這些測試在多大程度上為后來的表現(xiàn)所證實，這取決于所采用信息的數(shù)量、可靠性和適應性，以及解釋這些信息的技能和才智。得分重點：主語從句，被動結(jié)構(gòu)，并列結(jié)構(gòu)，省略結(jié)構(gòu)，定語從句73)、Whether to use tests. other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefore, upon t

45、he evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：73) 主語 并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 Whether / to use / tests, / other kinds of information, / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 or 省略結(jié)構(gòu)（to use）指代關(guān)系both / 方式狀語in a particular situation / 謂語 固定短語 并列結(jié)構(gòu)11depends, / 插入結(jié)構(gòu)therefore, / upon / 多重定語

46、the evidence / from experience / concerning comparative validity / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)22 and 省略結(jié)構(gòu)（depends）upon / 舉例such factors / as cost / and availability.詞義推敲：Whether to use ., or (to use) 究竟是使用還是（使用）or both：或是兩者兼用both：指代前句的tests, other kinds of informationin a particular situation 在某一特定情況下particular：separate a

47、nd distinct from others of the same group, category, or nature 特定的，個別的與同一團體、范疇或種類的其他部分分離和區(qū)分出來的the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity：多重后置定語后浪推前浪，可以翻譯為：“關(guān)于相對效度的來自經(jīng)驗的證據(jù)”such factors as. 諸如等因素參考譯文：因此，在某一特定情況下，究竟是采用測試還是其他種類的信息，或是兩者兼用，（須憑有關(guān)相對效度的經(jīng)驗依據(jù)而定/取決于與相對效度有關(guān)的來自經(jīng)驗的證據(jù)），也取決于諸如費用和有無

48、來源等因素。得分重點：并列結(jié)構(gòu)，省略結(jié)構(gòu)，插入結(jié)構(gòu)74)、In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted cannot be well defined.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：74) 介詞短語作狀語結(jié)構(gòu)In general, / 主句 并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 the tests / work / most effectively

49、/ 時間狀語從句when / 從句的主語the qualities / 非謂語作后置定語to be measured / 謂語 被動結(jié)構(gòu)can be most precisely defined / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 and 省略結(jié)構(gòu)（the tests work）least effectively / 時間狀語從句when / 從句中的主語從句what / （指代關(guān)系）is to be measured or predicted / 謂語 被動結(jié)構(gòu)can not be well defined.詞義推敲：In general 一般的說，大體上work most effectively 最為有效th

50、e qualities to be measured：所要測定的特征qualities：特征，特性，品質(zhì)，品德。作“質(zhì)量”解時，是抽象名次，沒有復數(shù)。measure：測量, 測度, 估量, 分派, 權(quán)衡, 調(diào)節(jié) be most precisely defined：很精確界定。precisely 精確地，恰好地，明確地definite：to specify distinctly 清楚地規(guī)定and least effectively：測試效果最差。省略了前面的the tests workwhat is to be measured or predicted not be well defined：

51、當所要測定或預測的東西不能明確地定義時參考譯文：一般的說，當所要測定的特征能很精確界定時，測試最為有效；而當所要測定或預測的東西不能明確地界定時，測試的效果則最差。得分重點：并列結(jié)構(gòu)，時間狀語從句，被動結(jié)構(gòu)，省略結(jié)構(gòu)，主語從句75)For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circums

52、tances.結(jié)構(gòu)分析：75) 狀語結(jié)構(gòu) 舉例For example, / 主語 they / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)1 do not compensate for / gross social inequality, / 并列結(jié)構(gòu)2 and thus / do not tell / 賓語從句how able / 從句的主語an underprivileged youngster / 謂語might have been / 虛擬條件句的倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)had he grown up / 介詞短語作狀語結(jié)構(gòu)under more favorable circumstances.詞義推敲：they 指代“測試”compe

53、nsate for 彌補compensate：to serve as or provide a substitute or counterbalance 補償，彌補作為代替品或平衡物使用或提供gross social inequality 明顯的/巨大的社會不公gross：glaringly obvious; flagrant 公然的十分明顯的；罪惡昭著的inequality：不公平，不平等tell：說明，表明underprivileged youngster：物質(zhì)條件差的/處于社會底層的/沒有特權(quán)的年輕人had he grown up = if he had grown up（虛擬語氣中條件

54、句的倒裝）grow up：成長，興起，形成under more favorable circumstances 在較好的環(huán)境下circumstance：the sum of determining factors beyond willful control 客觀形勢，情況除意志控制外的決定因素的總和favorable：有利的，贊成的，討人喜歡的參考譯文：例如，測試并不彌補明顯的社會不公，因此它們不能說明（如果）一個物質(zhì)條件差的年輕人，（如果）在較好的環(huán)境下成長的話，會有多大才干/多么的有本事/多么的能干。得分重點：并列結(jié)構(gòu)，賓語從句，虛擬語氣的倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)3、1996年Directions:Re

55、ad the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET 2. The differences in relative growth of various areas of scientific research have several causes.(71)Some of these causes are completely reasonable res

56、ults of social needs. Others are reasonable consequences of particular advances in science being to some extent self-accelerating. Some , how-ever , are less reasonable processes of different growth in which preconception of the form scientific theory ought to take, by persons in authority, act to a

57、lter the growth pattern of different areas.This is a new problem probably not yet unavoidable; but it is a frightening trend. (72)This trend began during the Second World War, when several govemments came to the conclusion that the specific demands that a government wants to make of its scientific e

58、stablishment cannot generally be foreseen in detail. It can be predicted, however, that from time to time questions will arise which will require specific scientific answers. It is therefore generally valuable to treat the scien-tific establishment as a resource or machine to be kept in functional order.(73)This seems mostly effectively done by supporting a