英語國家概況復(fù)習(xí)筆記

1、英語國家概況復(fù)習(xí)筆記Chapter 1 Land and People 英國的國土與人民Different Names for Britain and its Parts英國的不同名稱及其各組成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名稱:不列顛群島,大不列顛和英格蘭.2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名稱:大不列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國.3.The British Isl

2、es are made up of two large islandsGreat Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.不列顛群島由兩個(gè)大島大不列顛島（較大的一個(gè)）和愛爾蘭島及成千上萬個(gè)小島組成.4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.大不列顛島上有三個(gè)政區(qū):英格蘭,蘇格蘭和威爾士.England is in the southern part of Great Bri

3、tain.It is the largest, most populous section. 位于大不列顛島南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地區(qū).Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh. 蘇格蘭位于大不列顛的北部.它有三大自然區(qū)：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：愛丁堡.Wales is in the west of Gre

4、at Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威爾士位于大不列顛的西部.首府：加的夫Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北愛爾蘭是英國第四個(gè)區(qū)域.首府：貝爾法斯特5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain.Member nations are joined together economically an

5、d have certain trading agreements.The Commonwealth has no special powers.The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.英聯(lián)邦是一個(gè)自由聯(lián)合體,由曾是英國殖民地而現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)獨(dú)立的國家構(gòu)成.成員國之間實(shí)行經(jīng)濟(jì)合作,有一定的貿(mào)易協(xié)議.英聯(lián)邦沒有特別的權(quán)利,是否參加英聯(lián)邦由各成員國自己決定.它成立于19

6、31年,到1991年止已有50個(gè)成員國. Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英國的起源1.Arrival and settlement of the Celts At about 700 BC the Celts began to arrive in Britain and kept coming until the arrival of the Romans.They may come originally from eastern and central Europe,now France,Belgium and souther

7、n Germany.約公元前700年,凱爾特人來到不列顛島并一直陸續(xù)到來直到羅馬人的入侵.他們可能源自東歐和中歐,即現(xiàn)在的法國,比利時(shí)和德國南部. They came in three main waves:the Gaelsabout 600 BC;the Brythonsabout 400 BC;the Belgaeabout 150 BC.凱爾特人來到不列顛有三次高潮:第一次是約公元前600年的蓋爾人;第二次是約公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是約公元前150年的貝爾蓋人. The Celtic tribes are the ancestors of the Highland Scots

8、,the Irish and the Welsh,and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic.凱爾特人是山地蘇格蘭人,愛爾蘭人和威爾士人的祖先,他們的語言是威爾士語和蓋爾語的基礎(chǔ). The Celts religion was Druidism. 凱爾特人的宗教為德魯伊德教. The Belgae were the most industrious and vigorous of the Celtic tribes.貝爾蓋人是最勤奮,最精力充沛的. The Celts were practised farmers. 凱爾

9、特人是有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的農(nóng)民.2.Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons現(xiàn)代英國人的基礎(chǔ):盎格魯薩克遜 (446-871) In the mid-5th century Jutes,Saxons, and Angles came to Britain.They were three Teutonic tribes.The Jutes,who fished and farmed in Jutland(now southern Denmark),came to Britain first.Then the Saxons came.They came fr

10、om northern Germany,established their kingdoms in Essex, Sussex and Wessex. In the second half of the 6th century,the Angles who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. 五世紀(jì)中葉,朱特人,撒克遜人和盎格魯人來到不列顛島.這是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱

11、特蘭島(現(xiàn)丹麥南部)從事打漁農(nóng)耕的朱特人先到達(dá)不列顛;接著是撒克遜人,他們來自德國北部,在埃塞克斯,蘇塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王國;六世紀(jì)后半葉,同樣來自德國北部把自己名字給了英國人的盎格魯人,在東盎格利亞,麥西亞以及諾森伯利來定居.Heptarchy:During the Anglo-Saxons time,Britain was divided into many kingdoms,among which there were seven principal kingdoms of Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East Anglia,Mercia and Northum

12、bria.They were given the name for Heptarchy. 在盎格魯-撒克遜時(shí)期,英國被劃分為許多王國,其中有七個(gè)主要王國:肯特,埃塞克斯,蘇塞克斯,威塞克斯,東盎格利亞,麥西亞和諾森伯利來.他們被合稱為七王國.The Anglo-Saxon tribes were constantly at war with one another,each trying to get the upper hand,so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again. 盎格魯-撒克遜

13、部落之間不斷交戰(zhàn),彼此都想占上風(fēng),因此王國總是分了合,合了又分The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. 盎格魯撒克遜人把日耳曼宗教帶到了英國.Although the Anglo-Saxons were ferocious people,they laid the foundations of the English state.Firstly,they divided the country into shires;Secondly,they devised the narrow-strip,three-

14、field farming system which continued to the 18th century;Thirdly,they also established the manorial system.Finally,they created the Witan(council/meeting of wisemen)to advise the king,the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 雖然盎格魯-撒克遜人是兇猛的民族,但他們?yōu)橛鴩业男纬纱蛳铝嘶A(chǔ).首先他們把國家劃分為郡;其次他們設(shè)計(jì)的窄條三圃田農(nóng)

15、耕制延用至18世紀(jì);他們還建立了采邑制;最后他們還創(chuàng)立了議會(huì)(賢人會(huì)議),向國王提供建議,這是現(xiàn)存的樞密院的基礎(chǔ).3.The Viking and Danish invasions The Norwegian Vikings and the Danes attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century.The Danes gained control of the north and east of Englandthe Danelaw.從8世紀(jì)末起,挪威海盜和丹麥人就不斷襲擊英格蘭各地方.丹麥人控制英格蘭北部和

16、東部丹麥法區(qū). After Alfreds death,his successors reconquered the Danelaw.King Ethelred the Unready tried paying the invaders to stay away.But the Danes didnt go away but invade again. 亞爾弗雷德死后,他的繼任者們重新征服了丹麥地區(qū).未準(zhǔn)備好者埃塞爾雷德國王進(jìn)貢給丹麥人以免被侵略,但丹麥人又再度進(jìn)犯. After Ethelreds death,Canute,the Danish leader was made English

17、 king in 1016.He proved to be a wise ruler.After his death in 1035,his sons Harold and Hardicanute reigned successively.After Hardicanutes death the succession passed to the successor Edward the Confessor. 埃塞爾雷德死后,丹麥?zhǔn)最I(lǐng)喀奴特在1016年成為了英國國王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的兒子哈羅德和哈迪喀奴特先后統(tǒng)治王國.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位傳給了懺悔者愛德華.4.King

18、 Alfred and his contributions亞爾弗雷德國王和他所做出的貢獻(xiàn)(849-899) Alfred was the king of Wessex and defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879亞爾弗雷德是威塞克斯的國王.他打敗了丹麥人,并于公元879年與他們達(dá)成了友好協(xié)議;He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy”他因?yàn)榻⒘藦?qiáng)大艦隊(duì),而以“英國海軍之父”聞名于世;He

19、reorganized the Saxon army,making it more efficient他改組了撒克遜軍隊(duì),使之更為高效;He is said to have taught himself Latin and translated a Latin book into English據(jù)說他自學(xué)了拉丁語并將一本拉丁語書譯成英語He encouraged learning in others,established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great”

20、他鼓勵(lì)向他人求知并修建學(xué)校,并且制訂法律制度.5.The Norman Conquest and its consequences諾曼征服及其影響(1066) It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, William defeated Harold in the battle of Hastings.O

21、n Christmas Day William was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey. 據(jù)說愛德華國王曾答應(yīng)把英格蘭王位傳給諾曼底公爵威廉,但是賢人會(huì)議挑選了哈羅德為國王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯戰(zhàn)役中威廉打敗了哈羅德軍隊(duì).圣誕節(jié)這天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕為英格蘭國王. The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all t

22、he land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government.The Norman Conquest ended the English history of being invaded, the feudal system was completely established in England . Relations with the Continent were opened, and civilization and commer

23、ce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced.The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts. 公元1066年的諾曼征服也許是英國歷史上的最著名事件.征服者威廉沒收了幾乎所有土地,將其分發(fā)給他的諾曼追隨者.他用強(qiáng)大的諾曼政府取代軟弱的撒克遜人統(tǒng)治.諾曼征服結(jié)束了被侵略的英國歷史

24、,英格蘭完全確立了封建制度:擴(kuò)展了與歐洲大陸的關(guān)系;文明和商業(yè)都得到發(fā)展;引進(jìn)了諾曼法國文化、語言、舉止和建筑.教會(huì)與羅馬的聯(lián)系更為密切,教會(huì)法庭從世俗法庭中單獨(dú)分離出來.Chapter 3 The Shaping of the Nation 英國的形成（公元1066-1381）1.Englands feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度 Under William,the feudal system in England was completely established在威廉統(tǒng)治下,英國的封建制度得到完

25、全確立;In this system,the King owned all the land personally根據(jù)此制度,國王擁有全國所有土地;William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the lands produce威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族,條件是貴族保證服役和交租;These estates were scattered far and wide over the country,so that t

26、hose who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king貴族的這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處,這樣土地?fù)碛姓呔筒灰茁?lián)合起來反叛國王;The barons parceled out his land to the lesser nobles,knights and freemen,also in return for goods and services貴族又把土地分配給小貴族,騎士和自由民,同樣要他們交租和服役;At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs在封建等級

27、底層的是農(nóng)奴;One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance,not only to their immediate lord,but also to the king英國封建制獨(dú)有的特色就是,無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶,都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主,而且要效忠于國王. William replaced the Witan with the Grand Council. 威廉用大議會(huì)取代了賢人會(huì)議. In order to h

28、ave a reliable record of all his lands,his tenants and their possessions,William sent his clerks to compile a property record known as Domesday Book,which was completed in 1086. 為了使所有的土地,佃戶和他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)記錄可靠,威廉派官員編了一本財(cái)產(chǎn)清冊,稱為末日審判書2.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter大憲章的內(nèi)容及意義 Also known as the

29、 Magna Carta,Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons.大憲章是約翰國王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的. It consists of 63 clauses. Its important provisions are as follows大憲章共有63條:no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council沒有大議會(huì)批準(zhǔn)不得征稅;no freeman should be arrested,impri

30、soned,or deprived of his property except by the law of the land除依照法律,不得隨意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剝奪其財(cái)產(chǎn);the Church should possess all its rights,together with freedom of elections教會(huì)擁有的權(quán)利和選舉自由不受侵犯;London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges倫敦和其它城市應(yīng)保留其古老的權(quán)利和特權(quán);there should be the

31、same weight and measures throughout the country全國應(yīng)統(tǒng)一度量衡. Although the Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties,it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons,a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitati

32、on of the powers of the king.The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king,keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.盡管長期普遍認(rèn)為大憲章是英國自由的基礎(chǔ),但它只是國王與貴族之間的封建與法律關(guān)系,保證教會(huì)的自由,限制國王的權(quán)力.大憲章的精神是限制王權(quán),置王權(quán)于封建法律的約束下.3.The origins of the English Parliament英國議會(huì)的起源 In 12

33、58,the barons,under Simon de Montfort,forced Henry and his son Prince Edward to swear to accept the Provisions of Oxford.Later,Henry refused to confirm to the Provisions of Oxford,thus a civil war brake out between the kings supporters and the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort. 1258年,貴族們在西蒙德孟福爾

34、的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下迫使國王和他的兒子愛德華王子宣誓接受牛津協(xié)定.亨利拒絕批準(zhǔn)牛津協(xié)定,國王的支持者和西蒙德孟福爾領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的封建主組成的軍隊(duì)之間爆發(fā)了內(nèi)戰(zhàn).The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265,Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council,together with two knights from each country and two citizens from each town.,a meeting which ha

35、s seen as the earliest parliament.It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Common as a parliament. 大議會(huì)是當(dāng)今英國議會(huì)的原型.1265年,西門德孟福爾召開大議會(huì),各縣有兩名騎士,各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加,此次會(huì)議被看作是最早的議會(huì).大議會(huì)發(fā)展到后來演變成議會(huì).分為上議院和下議院Its main role was to offer advice,not to make decisions.There were still no elections,no partie

36、s,and the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 其作用是咨詢而非決定,也沒有選舉和政黨.議會(huì)的最重要的部分是上議院 4.The Hundred Years War with France and its consequences百年戰(zhàn)爭及其結(jié)果 When Edward III claimed the French Crown but the French refused to recognize,the war broke out. 愛德華三世宣布要繼承法國王位,但法國人民拒絕承認(rèn),于是引發(fā)了百年戰(zhàn)爭. T

37、he Hundred Years War with France refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453.The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy of Aquitaine,w

38、hile the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, Englands desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing s

39、ense of nationalism were the other causes. 百年戰(zhàn)爭指1337年到1453年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭.戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素.領(lǐng)土起因尤其是與英國國王擁有法國阿奎丹大片的公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系,隨著法國國王勢力日增,他們?nèi)找婵释碱I(lǐng)這片從他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)被分割出去的土地.經(jīng)濟(jì)原因則與弗蘭德斯有關(guān).弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進(jìn)口地,但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王.其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國幫助蘇格蘭人,以及不斷覺醒的民族意識. When the war ended,Calais was the only part of Franc

40、e that still in the hands of English. 戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束的時(shí)候只有加來港還被英軍占領(lǐng). Consequences:The expulsion of the English from France is regarded as a blessing for both countries:had they remained,the superior size and wealth of France would certainly have hindered the development of a separate English national identity,

41、while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. 戰(zhàn)爭的結(jié)果:把英國人趕出了法國對兩個(gè)國家都是幸事:若英國人繼續(xù)留在法國,那么法國人在領(lǐng)土和財(cái)富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會(huì)阻礙英國作為一個(gè)獨(dú)立民族的發(fā)展;而法國如被外國勢力占領(lǐng)了大量的領(lǐng)土,其民族特性的發(fā)展也要長期受阻. Henryrenewed the war in 1415 and won a crushing victory at Argencourt.He was recognized to the French thro

42、ne in 1420.After his death,the French,encouraged by Joan of Arc,finally drove the English out of France. 亨利五世在1415年重新發(fā)動(dòng)戰(zhàn)爭.在阿根科特戰(zhàn)役中大勝.他在1420年成為法國國王.亨利死后,法國人民在圣女貞德的鼓舞下,最終把英軍驅(qū)逐出法國.5.Consequences of the Black Death黑死病的影響 The Black Death was the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by

43、rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century.It swept through England in the summer of 1348 without warning and,most importantly,without any cure.It reduced Englands population from four million to two million(about one half and one third of the population was killed) by the end of the 14th century.

44、黑死病是現(xiàn)代名稱,指老鼠身上的跳蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的傳染性疾病.14世紀(jì)傳播了到歐洲.1348年夏天橫掃全英國,事先毫無預(yù)兆,而更重要的是無藥可救.英國的人口在14世紀(jì)末從400萬銳減至200萬. The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching.As a result of the plague,much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour.Landowners tended to change from ar

45、able to sheep-farming,which required less labour.The surviving peasants had better bargainning power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour.So some landlords,unable or unwilling to pay higher wages,tried to force peasants back into serfdom.In 1351 the government issued a Sta

46、tute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace. 黑死病對經(jīng)濟(jì)造成的后果更為深遠(yuǎn).鼠疫導(dǎo)致了大片土地?zé)o人照管和勞動(dòng)力極度匱乏.地主只得把耕地改成對人力需求較少的牧場.幸存的農(nóng)民處于有利的可以討價(jià)還價(jià)的地位,他們從農(nóng)奴變?yōu)楣蛡騽趧?dòng)力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付較高工資的地主想方設(shè)法迫使農(nóng)民重返農(nóng)奴地位。1351年政府頒

47、布“勞工法令”，規(guī)定農(nóng)民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪.Chapter 4 Transition to the Modern Age 向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡(1455-1688)1.The nature and consequences of the Wars of the Roses玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭 The name Wars of the Roses was, in fact, coined by a 19th century novelist Sir Walter Scott.This was a war between the rich and ambitio

48、us nobles. 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭這個(gè)詞是19世紀(jì)的大作家瓦爾特斯考特創(chuàng)造的.這是一場富人和野心勃勃的貴族之間的戰(zhàn)爭. It was referred to these battles between the great House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white,from 1455 to 1485.Although the Wars of the Roses were waged intermittently for thirty years,ordinary

49、people were little affected.Feudalism received its death blow.No less than 80 nobles of royal blood were killed in the wars.The great medieval nobility was much weakened and discredited.The kings power became supreme. 它是指從1455年到1485年,以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特大家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭.雖然玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭斷斷續(xù)續(xù)進(jìn)行了30年,但普通民眾所受影響甚微.封建制度

50、卻遭受了致命打擊,不少于80位皇室血統(tǒng)的貴族陣亡.中世紀(jì)的貴族勢力被大大削弱,名譽(yù)掃地.至此,國王的權(quán)利變得至高無上.After the wars,king Henry Tudor replaced king Richard to rule England. 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭后,亨利都鐸取代了理查德三世統(tǒng)治英國.2.Henry and the English Reformation亨利八世和英國的宗教改革 Henry was above all responsible for the religious reform of the Church亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的責(zé)任者 .There were

51、 3 main causes:a desire for change and reform in the Church had been growing for many years and now,encouraged by the success of Martin Luther,many people believed its time had come期望教會(huì)改革已有多年,現(xiàn)在又受馬丁路德成功的鼓舞,許多人認(rèn)為時(shí)機(jī)已到;the privilege and wealth of the clergy were also resented人們痛恨教職人員的特權(quán)和財(cái)富;Henry needs

52、money亨利需要錢. The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon because she could not produce a male heir for him.But the Pope refused to annul his marriage.Henrys reforms was to get rid of the English Churchs connection

53、 with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of Englands monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings,and past two laws as the Act of succession of 1534 a

54、nd the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以爭取離婚而開始,以脫離教皇而告終.亨利八世想與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚因?yàn)樗龥]有生下男嗣,但是教皇拒絕了.亨利改革的目的是擺脫英國教會(huì)與教皇的聯(lián)系,成立獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會(huì).1529年至1534年間逐漸地與羅馬

55、脫離了關(guān)系.他解散了所有英國的修道院和修女院,因?yàn)楹笳邔袒时葘τ鴩醺艺\.1534年的繼位法和1535年的至尊法案使改革具有了可行性.1535年他獲“英格蘭教會(huì)最高首腦”之稱號. The English Reformation had 3 important effects:They stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henrys position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, it

56、s importance grew as a result. His attack on the Popes power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism. 改革的三大影響:亨利的改革強(qiáng)調(diào)了君主權(quán)力,自然加強(qiáng)了亨利的地位;議會(huì)以往從未做過如此漫長而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加強(qiáng);他對教皇權(quán)力的打擊鼓舞許多人批評指責(zé)天主教會(huì),并希望從天主教轉(zhuǎn)向新教.3.Elizabeth I and

57、Parliament伊莉莎白一世和國會(huì) Generally speaking,Elizabeth was able to work with Parliament,but the relationship with Parliament was often turbulent.Parliament wished its customary right of free speech confirmed in writing;and it wanted to be allowed to start discussion of important questions at will,not by i

58、nvitation.Elizabeth would not permit either thing.Elizabeth treated 5 questions as personal and private.These were her religion,her marriage,her foreign policy,the succession to the throne and her finance. 伊麗莎白能與議會(huì)合作,但與議會(huì)的關(guān)系經(jīng)常動(dòng)蕩不安.議會(huì)希望以書面形式確認(rèn)議會(huì)按慣例已享有的言論自由,也希望能隨意地討論重大問題,而無需經(jīng)過女王邀請.伊麗莎白一件也未批準(zhǔn).伊麗莎白把五個(gè)問題

59、看作是個(gè)人問題,那就是她的宗教,婚姻,對外政策,王位的繼承和財(cái)產(chǎn).4.Elizabeths religious reform and her foreign policy伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeths religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Marys ties with Rome and restored her fathers independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of th