linguisticslecture2

1、Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級1The Significance of Learning LinguisticsTrue or false?English is more difficult to learn than Chinese. Children learn their native language efficiently and without introduction. Black English is not standard and should be reformed.Language opera

2、tes by rules.Language slowly changes.English is more difficult to learn than Chinese. FChildren learn their native language efficiently and without introduction. TBlack English is not standard and should be reformed. FLanguage operates by rules. TLanguage slowly changes. TIntroduction to Linguistics

3、2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級2Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級3Consider the questions? 1. 一個人如果沒有有一個人如果沒有有關某一語言的語言學關某一語言的語言學知識，她知識，她/他能夠流利他能夠流利地講這一語言嗎？地講這一語言嗎？ 答：可以。答：可以。 姚明是因為具有了投姚明是因為具有了投欄和運球等運動力學欄和運球等運動力學知識，所以才成為知識，所以才成為NBA明星的明星的? 答：應該不是。答：應該不是。Introduction to Linguistics2015-

4、2016 2nd Semester 13級4Introduction in Linguistics Lecture 2Chapter 1IntroductionIntroductionIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級51.1 What Is Linguistics?Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級61.1.1 Definition Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the sc

5、ience of language.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級7Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language.The object of Linguistics: language in generalThe method of learning Linguistics: systematic investigationIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semes

6、ter 13級級81.1.2 The Scope of LinguisticsThe different linguistic strata (layers)PhoneticsPhonologySounds GrammarMorphologySyntaxMeaningSemanticsPragmaticsSome Interdisciplinary Branches of LinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguisticsApplied LinguisticsCognitive LinguisticsIntroduction to Linguistics2

7、015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級9Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級10語言可以分為哪些層次？語言可以分為哪些層次？ Sound phonetics Sounds phonology Word morphology Words/sentence syntax Meaning semantics Meaning in a context pragmaticsIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級11A Specific Example

8、我覺得這個教室太熱我覺得這個教室太熱! - Phonetics A standard way to express this phonetically: I feel that the classroom is very hot.aifi:l they are IPA(音標音標) including vowels(元音元音) and consonants(輔音輔音) Another way, using Hanyu Pinyinwo3 jue2 de5 zhe4 ge5 jiao4 shi4 tai4 re4. Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd

9、Semester 13級級12我覺得這個教室太熱我覺得這個教室太熱! Phonetics(語音學語音學) In phonetics terms, this utterance contains vowels (like i: a: ) and consonants (like st)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級13我我覺覺得得這個這個教室太教室太熱熱! morphology(形態(tài)學形態(tài)學) A morpheme詞素詞素 is the smallest unit of meaning 教教 and 室室 have m

10、eanings (although 室室 is not normally used independently as a word) so, 教教 and 室室 are morphemes and they can be put together to form a word: 教室教室 If the utterance had been 我我們覺們覺得得 we would say that 我我們們has two morphemes, 我我 and 們們 is called a plural morphemeIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd S

11、emester 13級級14我我覺覺得得這個這個教室太教室太熱熱! - syntax句法學句法學 We can also say 這個這個教室教室,我我覺覺得太得太熱熱! I dont think we can really say *我把我把這個這個教室教室覺覺得太得太熱熱, because it sounds very strange And we certainly cant say something like *我我覺覺得太得太熱這個熱這個教室教室, although we might understand it if someone said it But if someone s

12、aid *教室教室這個這個,太太熱覺熱覺得我得我, we would probably have no idea what they were talking about This is because of syntactic rules governing Mandarin.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級15我我覺覺得得這個這個教室太教室太熱熱!Semantics語義學語義學 You can choose different words, and get more or less the same meaning

13、 Like 好好熱熱, or 非常非常熱熱, or熱熱得不得了得不得了 But some lexical (words) choices are not available: 我我覺覺得得 這這(*位位)教室太教室太熱熱 我我覺覺得得這個這個教室太教室太(*燙燙) This is because the classifier 位 selects a human noun And because燙燙 modifies substances like liquids, not spaces like roomsIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Sem

14、ester 13級級16我我覺覺得得這個這個教室太教室太熱熱!Pragmatics語用學語用學 我覺得這個教室太熱我覺得這個教室太熱! Is it only a comment on the temperature? Or does it really mean something like Please can you turn the air-conditioning on? In English, Im not sure can mean No And 我可能不去我可能不去 generally means “Im not going” Pragmatics tells us to loo

15、k beyond the sentence to find the real meaning.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級171.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive(描寫性的描寫

16、性的).Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級級18 If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive(規(guī)定性的規(guī)定性的). Introduction to Linguistics

17、2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級191. Dont say X.2. People dont say X.o The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. n The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級20o The r

18、eason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two types of rules is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character, e.g. nYou should never use a double-negative; nYou should not split the infinitive; etc. Introduction to Linguistics2015-

19、2016 2nd Semester 13級21“Humorous” grammar rulesJ Never end a sentence with a preposition.J “And” dont start a sentence with a conjunction. J It is wrong to ever split an infinitive.J Avoid cliches like the plague. (Theyre old hat.)J Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.J No sentence fragments.In

20、troduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級22 In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. nThe grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. nSome usages were prescribed to be lea

21、rned by heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether. It was a matter of black or white, right or wrong.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級232. Synchronic vs. diachronico The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study(共時研究共時研究).o The descri

22、ption of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study(歷時研究歷時研究).3. Speech vs. writingo Speech(言語言語) enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing(文字文字) in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried

23、out in speech than in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級24Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級254. Langue vs. Paroleo Langue(語言語言) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all th

24、e members of a speech community.o Parole(言語言語) refers to the realization of language in actual use.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級26o While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, the linguists proper object is the langue of each community, the lexicon, grammar, and

25、 phonology implanted in each individual by his upbringing in society and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級275. Competence Vs PerformanceCompetence語言能力語言能力: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerforman

26、ce語言運用語言運用: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級28Linguistics from a Sociological ViewFerdinand de Saussureo (1857-1913), Swiss, founder of structuralism, father of modern linguistics.o Course in General Linguistics

27、, 1916Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級29Linguistics from a Psychological Viewo Noam Chomskyo (1928-), founder of TG a revolution to structuralism.o LAD- (Pp.142)-Universal Grammar諾姆喬姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是麻省理工學院語言學的榮譽退休教授，也是著名的政治評論家、公共知識分子。2015年他在美國有線電視新聞網(wǎng)（CNN）上發(fā)表題為巴黎襲擊事件表明西方激憤情緒的虛偽C

28、homsky: Paris attacks show hypocrisy of Wests Outragehttp:/ to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級30Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級316. Traditional Grammar VS. Modern LinguisticsThree Criteria of traditional grammar:o 1. Exclude linguistic facts such as “Who did you speak to?

29、”, “taller than me”, etco 2. Use written material as the material for analysiso 3. Apply Latin-based model to other languagesIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級321.2 Whats language? 1.2.1 Definitions of Language Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only

30、 a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.-Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistic

31、s (1916)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級33“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”-Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)Introduction to Linguistics201

32、5-2016 2nd Semester 13級34“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”-Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級35“. in a sense all definitions of language are, by

33、 themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and uninformative, they must presuppose . some general theory of language and of linguistic analysis.”-R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General Linguistics (1989)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級36“Language is a purely

34、human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”-Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級37A Generally Accepted Definition Language is

35、a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Our textbookIntroduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級381.2.2 Design Features of Languageo Arbitrariness 任意性任意性 Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Introduction

36、 to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級39Saussures Model of Linguistic Sign A Linguistic sign is not a link between a thing and a name, but between a concept and a sound pattern, or the hearers psychological impression of a sound. (Saussure, 1916: 66)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semest

37、er 13級40o Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning o Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:n The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪汪汪汪” in Chinese. Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd

38、Semester 13級41Significance of Arbitrariness The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級42Arbitrariness and Symbolic Nature of Language Words are jus

39、t symbols, because they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級432. Productivity 創(chuàng)造性創(chuàng)造性 Language is productive or creative or generative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its u

40、sers.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級44Productivity 創(chuàng)造性創(chuàng)造性E.g. 一只有三只眼的猴子在法國國王的床上一只有三只眼的猴子在法國國王的床上酣然入睡酣然入睡.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級45Consider Are animals communicative signals creative? Ants? Bees? Gibbons?Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Seme

41、ster 13級463. Duality 雙重性雙重性 By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. (Jone Lyons 1982: 20)Introduction to Linguistics201

42、5-2016 2nd Semester 13級47Consider Does animals signal system have duality?E.g. 母雞的叫聲母雞的叫聲”咯咯答咯咯答”?Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級48Hierarchy of Language: Expression of DualityScores of soundsHundreds of morphemesThousands of wordsAstronomical number of sentences語言的雙重性表現(xiàn)在兩語言的雙重性

43、表現(xiàn)在兩個方面：個方面： 1. 用自身無意義的用自身無意義的 語音構成語音構成 有意義的有意義的語言單位語言單位 2. 用小單位構成大用小單位構成大單位單位Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級49Hierarchy of language: stratification as the infinite use of finite means.n Sounds syllables morphemes words phrases clauses sentences/utterances texts/discoursesIntro

44、duction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級50Significance of Duality Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. （胡壯麟（胡壯麟 2001：7-8） In other words, language is productive be

45、cause of its own duality.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級514. Displacement 移位性移位性 By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other wor

46、ds, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級52n Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away

47、from us. Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級53Significance of Displacemento 移位性使得話語對上層建筑和意識形態(tài)具移位性使得話語對上層建筑和意識形態(tài)具有一定的反向影響作用，即話語可以制造有一定的反向影響作用，即話語可以制造意識形態(tài)和創(chuàng)造現(xiàn)實意識形態(tài)和創(chuàng)造現(xiàn)實.（熊學亮（熊學亮 2003：5）2. In a word, the intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to t

48、alk and think in abstract terms. (Roger Fowler, 1974: 8)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級545. Cultural Transmission文化傳遞性文化傳遞性 By cultural transmission is meant that the details of any language system are not genetically but culturally transmitted. That is, it is passed on from on

49、e generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. Therefore, it is also called learnability language.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級551.2.3 Functions of LanguageWhat do you think functions of language?Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semes

50、ter 13級56o Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. o They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications o

51、f the basic functions of language.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級57o For Jakobson, language is above all for communication. n While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even

52、the primary goal of communication. Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級58Elements of Communication: Jakobsons Model (1960) Context Referential (指稱功能指稱功能) Addresser Message Addressee Emotive Poetic Conative (詩學功能詩學功能) (感情功能感情功能) Contact (意動功能意動功能) Phatic (交際功能交際功能) Code Metalingual (

53、元語言功能元語言功能)Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級59Hallidays Model (1925-), founder of systemic functional linguistics,1947-1949 studied at Beijing University, 1949-1950 studied at Ling Nan University, 1955 got doctors degree at Cambridge University with The Language of the Chinese “S

54、ecret History of the Mongols”Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級60 Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, inte

55、rpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級61Summary of the Functions of Languageo Informative 信息功能信息功能Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes,

56、 to give information about facts, or to reason things out.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級622. Interpersonal function人際功能人際功能 When language is used to establish and maintain status among people, it serves an Interpersonal function.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semeste

57、r 13級633. Performative function施為功能施為功能 It means the use of language to “do things”, to perform actions through quite formal and even ritualized language. Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級644. Emotive function 感情功能感情功能 It means the use of language to create certain feelings in th

58、e hearer. Through Jokes, Advertising, Propaganda, etc.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級655. Phatic 寒暄功能寒暄功能 It is the use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. E.g. Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.Introduction to Linguistics2

59、015-2016 2nd Semester 13級666. Recreational function 娛樂功能娛樂功能It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.E.g. babys babbling, chanters chanting, poetry, etc.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級677. Metalingual元語言功能元語言功能 It is the use of language to talk about langu

60、age itself. This makes language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about talking and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.Introduction to Linguistics2015-2016 2nd Semester 13級68How did language come into being?Origin