核技術(shù)導(dǎo)論英文課件：chap1 Introduction and Basic concepts

1、Introduction to Nuclear TechnologyWhatChapter 1. Introduction and Basic concepts Chapter 2. Radiation Chapter 3. Basic Instrumentation for Nuclear Technology Chapter 4. Power From Fission Chapter 5. Thermonuclear Fusion Chapter 6. Nuclear Weapons Chapter 7. Nuclear Waste Chapter 8. Radioactive isoto

2、pes and Their Applications Chapter 9. Nuclear Analysis Methods Chapter 10. Nuclear Technology in Industry and Agriculture Chapter 11. Medical Applications of Nuclear Technology Chapter 12. Impact, Issues and Future of Nuclear Technology References1) Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering, J

3、.Kenneth Shultis and Richard E.Faw (Marcel Dekker)2) Nuclear Physics - Principles and Applications, J.S.Lilley, (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd )3) Nuclear Technology, Joseph A. Angelo,Jr (Greenwood Press)4) Nuclear Energy Principles, Practices, and Prospects, David Bodansky (Springer)5) Introduction to Nuc

4、lear Technology, Lecture notes by Chung ChiehThe AssessmentClass discussion and home work 40%Midterm seminar 10% Final Exam 50%ones work is performed honestly !The Significance of Nuclear Technology Early Discoveries Basic Facts and Definitions 4.Units SI system, Physical constants, natural unit5.Nu

5、clear Reactions Chapter 1. Introduction and Basic conceptsDiscovery of nuclear reactions (n.r.).Energy in n.r.Neutron induced nuclear reactionsSimple theories or concepts related to n.r.Types of n.r.Applications of n.r.6Natures Hierarchy a biological view? ? ?Sub-Atomic ParticlesAtomMoleculeOrganell

6、eCellTissueOrganOrgan SystemMulticellular OrganismPopulationCommunityEcosystemBiosphere1)Widely applied1.1 The Significance of Nuclear Technology1)Widely appliedmedicine, basic research, agriculture, industry, archaeology, geology, environmental science, and space explorationnuclear technology has p

7、layed a dominant role in national security and geopoliticsGDP 4.7% (USA)Extensively Collaborated1.1 The Significance of Nuclear Technology2) Alter the course of Human civilizationPrometheus stole fire from Mount Olympuscontrol of fire ultimately enabled the human race to evolve into the technically

8、complex global civilizationEnrico Fermi nuclear reactorStarted a new technical erahuman beings might wisely harvest the energy within the atomic nucleus in a controlled manner1942Atomic Bomb - the age of nuclear weaponry. Human beings were capable of unleashing wholesale destruction on planet EarthP

9、andora Box deliver misfortune into the house of man05:29:45，July16，19453) Skill and Wisdomto know how the technology worksPhysics Practice E, , Mcritical INNOVATION to make a unanimous decision to promote and harvest only the beneficial aspects of nuclear technology CAREFULNESSInstead of becoming th

10、e destroyer of worlds, nuclear technology should serve as the saver of worlds and the protector of Earth CONSCIENCE1.1 The Significance of Nuclear Technology1.2 Early Discoveries ModelRadiationEnergyLeucippus and Democritus (c. 460c. 370 B.C.) The theory of atomism-The Four ElementsEarthAirFireWater

11、Democritus，atomos (), “not divisible.”1803, J.Dalton， suggested that each chemical element was composed of a particular type of atom.1811, A.Avogadro, Avogadros Law.1869, Mendeleev， ？Is an atom divisiblethe molecule as the smallest particle of any substancemolecules, consisted of collections of atom

12、sDaltons Atomic TheoryDalton (1766-1844 ): all substances are made of small, indivisible, and fundamental natural units called atoms. The law of partial pressure of gases:the pressure of a fixed volume of gases was proportional to the number of atoms present MoleculesFailure of Daltons atomic theory

13、2 H + O = 2 HO 2 H + O = H2O (does not agree with volume measured) H + O = HO (does not agree with volume measured)Avogadro(1775-1856 ): natural units (for chemical reactions are molecules rather than single atoms. 1 vol. O2 + 2 vol. H2 2 vol. H2O2 CO (g) + O2 (g) Avogadros number = 6.0221367e23 mol

14、ecules mol-1 (physical constant)1897, Thomson, the discovery of electron Atom, was in fact divisible and contained “smaller parts.”“plum pudding”modelthe atom was a distributed positively charged mass with an appropriate number of tinyelectrons embedded in itIt was as incredible as if you fired a 15

15、-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.1911, Rutherford, nuclear model of the atoma tiny central positive core that contained almost all the atoms mass. The nucleus was surrounded by electrons in appropriate number to maintain a balance of electrical charge.1932, Chadwic

16、k discovered the neutroncomplete the basic model of the nuclear atom: a central, positively charged nucleuscontaining protons and neutrons that was surrounded by a discretely organized cloud of orbiting electrons.neutron-related nuclear research/lucidcafe/library/library.html#scienceWhy does Cl, hav

17、e atomic weights 35.5?1. 人類尋找物質(zhì)構(gòu)造基本單元的歷程 1895 , Roentgen, X-rayDec.22, 1895Causing the sheet to glow was a penetrating form of radiation. He called this unknown radiation X-rays.penetrating rays could reveal the internal structure of opaque objectsCrookes tube His letter published in Nature (Jan. 23

18、, 1896)1896 , Becquerel, the discovery of radioactivity The uranium salt produced an intense silhouette of itself on the photographic plate 1 Bq = 1 DPSHe further subjected his sample of uranyl sulfate, K2UO2(SO4)22H2O, to sun light hoping that his sample will collect the solar energy for the releas

19、e of fluorescence. To his surprise, he found the fluorescence persisted after the sample was removed from the sun lightMarie and Pierre Curie1898, named the emissions (alpha & beta) from uranium radioactivityDiscovered the chemical elements radium and polonium1 Ci = 3.7x1010 BqRadioactivityErnest Ru

20、therford determined there were 3 kinds of radioactivityEnrico Fermi (1901-1954)First Atomic Piledesigned the first atomic pile and produced the first nuclear chain reaction on Dec. 2, 1942 (birth of the reactor)Nobel Prizes in Nuclear ScienceThe Significance of Nuclear Technology Early Discoveries B

21、asic Facts and Definitions 4.Units SI system, Physical constants, natural unit5.Nuclear Reactions Chapter 1. Introduction and Basic conceptsDiscovery of nuclear reactions (n.r.).Energy in n.r.Neutron induced nuclear reactionsSimple theories or concepts related to n.r.Types of n.r.Applications of n.r

22、.Atomic and Nuclear StuctureAtom - smallest unit of a chemical element Size on the order of 10-8 cm (1 Angstrom)Contains Z electrons (Qe = -1e, me = 0.511 MeV/c2)e = 1.602x10-19 CoulombandNucleus Size on the order of 10-13 cm (1 Fermi )Contains more than 99.9% of the mass of the atomMade of Z proton

23、s and N neutrons Proton (Qp = +1e, mp = 938.28 MeV/c2 )Neutron (Qn = 0, mn = 939.57 MeV/c2 )A = Atomic mass = Z + N Held together by strong nuclear forceZXN where X = chemical symbolA 2.3 1014 g/cm310-2 cm(?) 10-8 cm 10 -12 cm 10-13 cm ? NuclideZNASymbol碳-12661212C碳-13671313C碳-14681414C1) The nucleu

24、s and its constituents1.3 Basic Facts and DefinitionsNuclide核素: a term used to refer to a particular atom or nucleus with a specific neutron number N and atomic (proton) number Z. Isotopes同位素: atoms of the same element with different number of neutron isobar同量異位素: nuclides with the same mass number

25、A = N + Z but with different number of neutrons N and protons Z.Isotone同中子異位素: nuclides with the same number of neutrons N but different number of protons Z. isomer同質(zhì)異能素 : the same nuclide (same Z and N) in which the nucleus is in different long lived excited states. 2) Nuclear Nomenclature nuclear

26、jargonZNAExamplesisotopeSameDD1H 2H 3HisotoneDSameD2H 3HeisobarDDSame3H 3HeisomerSameSameSame99Te 99mTeCalculation of Hydrogen Atomic Weight Isotopeatomic massAbundanceatomic mass abundance1H1.007825030.999851.0076742H2.0141020.0001480.0002983H3.016049TraceAtomic weight for H = 1.007674 + 0.00298 =

27、1.00797239K (93.2%)59Co 88Sr127I133Cs一些放射性同位素Are the chemical properties of isotopes nearly identical?40K 1.28x108 a60Co 5.27 a90Sr 28.8 a131I 8.04 d 137Cs 30.12 a The basis for seperationStable Nuclides Stable nuclides remain the same for an indefinite period.Some characteristics of stable nuclides

28、:Atomic number Z 83, but no stable isotopes for Z = 43 and 61.There are 81 elements with 280 stable nuclides.Usually there are more neutrons than protons in the nuclei.Nuclides with magic number of protons or neutrons are very stable.Pairing of nucleons (spin coupling) contributes to nuclide stabili

29、ty.Is abundance of a nuclide related to its stability?Stable Nuclidesnumber of neutrons and protonsFind N / Z for4He2 = 116O8 =40Ar18 = 91Zn40 = 144Nd60 = 186Re75 =209Bi83 =N = # of neutronsZ = # of protonsStable NuclidesN/Z of some light nuclides Z Stable Nuclides| (Magic numbers and double magic-n

30、umber nuclides are in bold) (to be continued)21 Sc20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca19 K K K18 Ar Ar Ar .17 Cl Cl16 S S S S15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P14 Si Si Si . .13 Al12 Mg Mg Mg . . .11 Na10 . . . . . . . . . . Ne Ne Ne 9 F . . . 8 O O O 7 N N 6 C C . . . . 5 . . . .

31、 B B 4 Be . . . . 3 Li Li 2 He He . . . . . 1 P D N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27Stable NuclidesN/Z of nuclides40 Zr . . . . . . . . + . . . XXX X X 39 Y X38 Sr X XXX 37 Rb X X 36 Kr X X XX X 35 Br . . . . . + . . X X34 Se XXXX X X33 As X32 Ge X XXX X . 31

32、 Ga X X30 Zn . . . + . X XXX X . 29 Cu X X28 Ni X XXX X . . 27 Co X26 Fe X XXX . . 25 Mn + X24 Cr X XXX . . 23 v XX22 Ti XXXXX . . . 21 Sc X 20 Ca X X 2 2 3 4 5 01234567890123456789012345678901N / A ratio increases as A increasesMore stable isotopes for even Z than odd ZMore stable isotones for even

33、 N than odd NMore stable isotopes and isotones for magic Z and NStable Nuclidesnatural occurring heavy nuclidesNatural Occurring Isotopes of Heavy Elements (abundance)76Os184 (0.018), 186 (1.59), 187 (1.64), 188 (13.3), 189 (16.1), 190 (26.4), 192 (41.0)77Ir191 (38.5), 193 (61.5)78Pt190 (0.0127), 19

34、2 (0.78), 194 (32.9), 195 (33.8), 196 (25.2), 198 (7.19)79Au197 (100)80Hg196 (0.146), 198 (10.02), 199 (16.84), 200(23.13), 201(13.22), 202(29.8), 204(6.85)81Tl203 (29.5), 205 (70.5)82Pb204 (1.4), 206 (25.1), 207 (21.7), 208 (52.3)83Bi209 (100)90Th232 (100% half life 1.4x1010 y)92U235 (0.720, half l

35、ife 7.04x108 y), 238 (99.276, half life 4.5x109 y) Stable Nuclidespairing of nucleonsEffect of Paring NucleonsZN# of stable stable nuclideseveneven166evenodd57oddeven53oddodd*4 total 280*They are: 2D1, 6Li3, 10B5, & 14N7Two protons or neutrons occupy a quantum state, due to their spin.Pairing nucleo

36、ns stabilises nuclides, leading to a large number of stable nuclides with even Z and N.No stable isotopes for Z = 43 or 61.No stable isotones with N = 19, 31, 35, 39, 61, 89More stable isotopes for even Z than odd Z and for even N than odd NElements with even Z are more abundant than those with odd

37、Z of comparable mass.Stable Nuclidesmagic numbers of nucleonsMagic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126.Double-magic number nuclides: 4He2, 16O8, 40Ca20, 48Ca20, & 208Pb82. 4He2 as alpha particles, abundant in the universe, 16O8 abundant on Earth.Six stable isotopes of Ca20, 5 stable isotopes o

38、f Ni28, high for their masses.Large number of stable isotopes and isotones with Z & N = 50 and 82.The heavies stable nuclide 209Bi83 has 126 neutrons.O8, Ca20, Ni28, Sn50 and Pb82 have relative high abundance.The binding energy (BE) of a nuclide is the energy released when the atom is synthesized fr

39、om the appropriate numbers of hydrogen atoms and neutrons. Z H + N n = AE + BEor Z mH + N mn = mE + BEwhere mH, mn, and mE are masses of H, n, and AE respectively.EgBE = Z mH + N mn - mEBE (3He) = (2*1.007825 + 1.008665 - 3.01603) 931.481 MeV = 7.72 MeVBE (4He) = (2*1.007825 + 2*1.008665 - 4.00260)

40、931.481 MeV = 28.30 MeV3) Nuclear mass and energyThe more the binding energy, the more stable is the nuclide.Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesaverage binding energyThe binding energy and averagebinding energy of some nuclidesNuclide BE BE / A MeV MeV / nucleon3He2 7.72 2.574He228.3 7.0816O8127.6 7.985

41、6Fe26492.3 8.79 54Fe26471.768.74 208Pb821636.44 7.87 238U921801.7 7.57BE A AThe Average Binding Energy CurveStable and Radioactive Nuclidesa semi-empirical equation for BEBE(A,Z) = 14.1A - 13A2/3 - - + EaProportional to ADecrease due to surface tensionInstability due to pInstability due to neutron t

42、o proton ratioPairing of nucleonStable and Radioactive Nuclidesmass excess (ME)The difference between the mass of a nuclide and its mass number, A, is the mass excess (ME), ME = mass - A.Masses (amu) of some entitiesH 1.0078250318O 17.999162D2.01410254Fe54.938296 3H 3.01604956Fe55.9349394He4.0026032

43、06Pb205.97587212C12.000000 209Bi208.980414C14.003242235U235.04392416O15.994915238U238.055040 What are the MEs for the nuclides listed here?Which is the standard?Which have negative MEs?Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesmass excess (ME) and average -BEComparison of mass excess and average binding energy

44、 (amu)Nuclide Mass ME -BE average BEH1.0078250.00782500n1.0086650.008665003He3.016030.01603-0.002760.008284He4.002600.00260-0.00760.030412C12.0000000-0.008250.0989416O15.994915-0.005085-0.008570.136940Ca39.96259-0.03741-0.009170.3669 54Fe53.939612-0.060388-0.009380.506556Fe55.934939-0.065061-0.00944

45、0.52851208Pb82207.976627-0.023373-0.008451.757238U92238.0507840.050784-0.008131.934Stable and Radioactive Nuclidesfission and fusion energy and MEStable and Radioactive Nuclidesapplication of mass excess (ME)Like masses, the ME can be used to calculate energy of decay, because the same scale is used

46、 for both.eg:MEs of 40Sc21 and 40Ca20 are -20.527 and -34.847 MeV respectively. Estimate the energy of decay for 40Sc21 40Ca20 + b+or 40Sc21 + e 40Ca20solution:Edecay = -20.527 - (-34.847) = 14.32 MeVEdecay includes 1.02 MeV for the positron-electron pair for b+ decay.The Significance of Nuclear Tec

47、hnology Early Discoveries Basic Facts and Definitions 4.Units Grammar, SI system, Physical constants, natural unit5.Nuclear Reactions Chapter 1. Introduction and Basic conceptsDiscovery of nuclear reactions (n.r.).Energy in n.r.Neutron induced nuclear reactionsSimple theories or concepts related to

48、n.r.Types of n.r.Applications of n.r.Grammar1.4 UnitsCapitalizationSpacepluralA unit name is never capitalized even if it is a persons name. Thus curie, not Curie. However, the symbol or abbreviation of a unit named after a person is capitalized. Thus Sv, not sv.Use 58 m, not 58m .A symbol is never

49、pluralized. Thus 8 N, not 8 Ns or 8 Ns .raised dotsSolidismixing units/namesprefixSometimes a raised dot is used when combining units such as N.m2.s; however, a single space between unit symbols is preferred as in N m2 s.For simple unit combinations use g/cm3 or g cm-3. However, for more complex exp

50、ressions, N m-2 s-1 is much clearer than N/m2/s.Never mix unit names and symbols. Thus kg/s, not kg/second or kilogram/s.Never use double prefixes such as g; use pg. Also put prefixes in the numerator. Thus km/s, not m/ms.double vowelsHyphensnumbersWhen spelling out prefixes with names that begin wi

51、th a vowel, suppress the ending vowel on the prefix. Thus megohm and kilohm, not megaohm and kiloohm.Do not put hyphens between unit names. Thus newton meter, not newton-meter. Also never use a hyphen with a prefix. Hence, write microgram not micro-gram.For numbers less than one, use 0.532 not .532.

52、 Use prefixes to avoid large numbers; thus 12.345 kg, not 12345 g. For numbers with more than 5 adjacent numerals, spaces are often used to group numerals into triplets; thus 123 456 789.123 456 33, not 123456789.12345633.International System of Units“(1) Base units(2) derived units which are combin

53、ations of the base units,(3) supplementary units(4) temporary units which are in widespread use for special applications.(5) Special Nuclear Units2) SI system(1) Base unitsPhysical quantitylengthmasstimeelectric currentthermodynamic temperatureluminous intensityquantity of substanceUnit namemeterkil

54、ogramsecondamperekelvincandelamoleSymbolmkgsAKcdmol(2) derived units (3) supplementary units(4) special applications(5) Special Nuclear Unitsis the kinetic energy gained by an electron (mass me and charge -e) that is accelerated through a potential difference V of one volt. The work done by the elec

55、tric field is -eV = (1.60217646 x 10-19 C)(1 J/C) = 1.60217646 x 10-19 J = 1 eV.The Electron Volt1 eV= 1.602 176 46 x 10-19 JThe Atomic Mass Unit1 amu= 1.6605387 x 10-27 kg1/12 the mass of a neutral ground-state atom of 12C.3) Physical constants4) Natural Units Units such as meter, second, joule, ca

56、lorie, gram, kilogram etc are artificial (man-made) units.The fundamental components of materials are called the natural units.remain the same during changesAtoms, electrons, molecules, and moles are natural units or building blocks of matter. Photons are natural units of EM radiation (energy).Earth

57、 WaterCold Wet DryHotFire AirThe Significance of Nuclear Technology Early Discoveries Basic Facts and Definitions 4.Units 5.Nuclear Reactions Chapter 1. Introduction and Basic conceptsDiscovery of nuclear reactions (n.r.).Energy in n.r., ExperimentalNeutron induced nuclear reactionsSimple theories o

58、r concepts related to n.r.Types of n.r.Applications of n.r.1.5 Nuclear ReactionsEnergy drives all reactions, physical, chemical, biological, and nuclear.Physical reactions change states of material among solids, liquids, gases, solutions. Molecules of substances remain the same.Chemical reactions ch

59、ange the molecules of substances, but identities of elements remain the same.Biological reactions are combinations of chemical and physical reactions.Nuclear reactions change the atomic nuclei and thus the identities of nuclides. They are accomplished by bombardment using subatomic particles or phot

60、ons.She points it to the rock, and the rock turns into gold.- a legend200Hg + 1H 197Au + 4HeDiscoveries of Nuclear Reactionsa source & tracks with long & thin proton tracka and thin proton spots on fluorescence screen In 1914, Marsden and Rutehrford saw some thin tracks and spots among those due to