《心理語言學》課件：Ch4word recogntion

1、Chapter 4 Words and Word RecognitionContentsDimension of Word KnowledgeResearch Methods of Word RecognitionModels of the Internal LexiconLexicon AccessModels of the Lexicon Access1. What is word?A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed

2、 in spoken or written form. A vague definition. Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.1.1 Three senses of “word”A physical unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, egPhonological: Orthographic: It

3、 is wonderful.Three words are recognized.However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes:Phonological: Orthographic: Its wonderful.Are they two words or three?A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walkedHow many words are there?I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.How ma

4、ny times did the word “have” occur?A lexical item or a lexemeA lexical item is an entry in a dictionary. A lexeme WRITE includes all of its grammatical forms:write, writes, writing, wrote, writtenA grammatical unit: sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeProblem: blackboard1.2 Identification of wordsStabil

5、ity: stable linguistic units.chairman, but not *manchairRelative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment.But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary .

6、A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, egIs Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.1.3 Classification of wordsVariable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.Invariable words: since, when, seldom,

7、through, etc.Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conju

8、nctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new terms in word class:Pa

9、rticle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “l(fā)ook back”, etc.Auxiliary: do, haveModal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonePro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.Pro-verb: He speaks English

10、 better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is mor

11、e than one.DeterminerPredeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters ; double, twice, three times ; such, what (exclamative)Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; PossP; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; eac

12、h, enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a littlePostdeterminers: every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three ; (a) dozen*their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls2. MorphologyMorphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by w

13、hich words are formed from smaller components morphemes.The Grammar of Words2.1 MorphemesThe smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it

14、is lexical or grammatical.2.2 Types of morphemesFree vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed wit

15、hout total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to an

16、other morpheme. Normally divided into prefix (dis-, un-) and suffix (-en, -ify).Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added, egfriendroot basefriendlyroot/base + suffix baseunfriendlyprefix + base baseunfriendlinessbase + suffix base?Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectio

17、nal affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly friendly.2.3 Word-formationInflectionNominal forms: boys, boysVerb forms: wants, want

18、ed, wantingAdjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallestInflectionCompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillVerb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfreePreposition compounds: i

19、nto, throughoutEndocentric & exocentricEndocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a

20、 kind of neckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation: businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, nooneDerivationClass-changing:NV: lengthen, ho

21、spitalize, discardNA: friendly, delightful, speechlessVN: worker, employee, inhabitantVA: acceptable, adorableAN: rapidness, rapidityAV: deafen, sweetenAdjAdv: exactly, quicklyClass-preserving:NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletVV: disobey, unfastenAA: grayish, irrelevantClass preserving3. Lexical chang

22、eFormation of new wordsPhonological changeMorphosyntactic changeSemantic changeOrthographic change3.1 Word-formation through lexical changeInvention/CoinageMostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraBlendingtransfer+resistortransistorsmoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunch

23、brunchmodulator+demodulatormodemdance+exercisedancerciseadvertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainmentinformation+commercialinfomercialBack-formationdiagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazyliaise liaison reminisce reminiscence statistic statistics televise workedbeseech:

24、 besought beseechedslay: slew slayed?go: went goed?He goed thereBorrowingFrench: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price

25、, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, studyLatin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minorGreek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquit

26、o, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanillaItalian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcanoDutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freigh

27、t, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yachtArabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zeroIndian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swas

28、tika, thug, yogaChinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonTypes of loan wordsLoanwords:au pair, encore, coup detat, kungfu, sputnikLoanblendcoconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town

29、(English)Loanshiftbridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponteLoan translation, or calquefree verse L verse libreblack humor Fr humour noirfound object n in connected speech, eg rock-n-rollAddition of sound: L. studium O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudoEnglish: rascal rapscallionM

30、etathesis: changing the sequence of soundO.E. brid bird, O.E. ox/ax askAssimilation:impossible, immovableirregular, irresponsibleillogical, illegal3.3 Morphosyntactic changeMorphological change:third person singular present tense: -(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth -(e)s: does, goes, has, findsth

31、e campus of the university the universitys campusSyntactic change:He saw you not. He didnt see you.I know not where to hide my head. I dont know where to hide my head.Fusion/blending:equally good + just as good equally as goodIts no use getting there before nine + Theres no use in getting there befo

32、re nine Theres no use getting there before nine.3.4 Semantic changeBroadening:holiday: holy day (religion) day for restbird: young bird any kindtask: tax workNarrowing:meat: food girl: young person young womandeer: beast a special kind of animalMeaning shift:bead: prayer the prayer bead small, ball-

33、shaped piece of glass, metal or woodClass shift: conversion to other word classesengineer: person trained in engineering to act as an engineer (NV)Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .history: Old French Latin herstoryFake etymology: a kind of folk etymol

34、ogyManhattan: man with hat on MBA: married but availablePhD: perhaps have divorcedgolf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden3.5 Orthographic changeChange of spelling:Iesus Jesussate satSunne SunResearch Methods of Word RecognitionReading Time MethodsDecision MethodNaming MethodWord Free Association Meth

35、odcued lexical accessAnalysis of Speech errorsWord RecognitionWhich of these words would you recognise more easily?pictureconvictransomanswerHow might ease of recognition be operationalised?SpeedAccuracy一、反應時實驗法閱讀時間法(Reading Time Methods)用閱讀時間作為研究閱讀的一個指標，通過分析閱讀時間來揭示閱讀者的理解過程。理論假設第一個是即時加工假說（immediacy

36、assumption）,該假說認為，讀者只有在對所注視的詞完成所有的加工后（包括對詞的編碼、選擇詞義、搞清楚指代關系、搞清楚詞在句子和語段中的作用等等）眼睛才繼續(xù)移動，進行下一步閱讀。 第二個是眼腦假說（eye-mind assumption）,該假說認為，被試對那個詞的注視與對該詞的心理加工是同時進行的。也就是說，被試所加工的詞正是他所注視的那個詞。所以對某個詞的總注視時間就是對該詞的加工時間。 閱讀時間法包括：眼動記錄法開窗口法指定法（一）眼動記錄法眼動記錄法主要是在被試閱讀時，通過用眼動儀記錄被試閱讀時的眼動軌跡。眼動儀可以獲得閱讀時的許多重要數(shù)據(jù)。如：注視位置、注視時間、注視次數(shù)、回視

37、、眼跳等等。眼動數(shù)據(jù)可用于研究從字詞水平到課文水平心理加工問題。（二）開窗口法在開窗口法中，文章是通過計算機顯示屏上的一個窗口呈現(xiàn)的，窗口的大小是由主試設置的。當讀者按某一個鍵時，文章的第一部分即從出口出現(xiàn)，而當讀者再次按鍵時，文章的后繼部分就接著會在窗口中出現(xiàn)。兩次按鍵之間的時間間隔就是閱讀時間。窗口內(nèi)可顯示一整篇文章或單獨的幾個句子、短語或單詞。 開窗口的具體方法 移動窗口法 固定窗口法 累積窗口技術 1.移動窗口法（moving window method）有人（McCokie & Rayner,1975）將眼動儀與窗口技術結(jié)合起來，創(chuàng)造了一種移動窗口技術。即眼動儀與一臺計算機連接，計算

38、機同時還與一個陰極射線管（CRT）連接。陰極射線管用以呈現(xiàn)刺激。眼動數(shù)據(jù)每毫秒記錄一次。將文章進行破壞，使原始文章中的每個字母均用X代替。即保持了單詞長度的信息和標點符號的信息，但改變了單詞形狀的信息。在實驗中，被破壞的文章呈現(xiàn)在CRT上。不過當被試注視第一行時，屏幕顯示發(fā)生變化，在一定的區(qū)域內(nèi)（如注視點左側(cè)和右側(cè)為八個字符空間），該范圍的X則被原始文章的字母所代替。有正常課文呈現(xiàn)的區(qū)域稱為“窗口”。當讀者進行眼跳時，那些字母又變成了X，而新注視點周圍的窗口區(qū)域內(nèi)，X被原始文章中的字母所代替，被試注視哪個區(qū)域，哪個區(qū)域就會出現(xiàn)該變化。因此，不論讀者看哪里，被試都有一個窗口的正常文章可供閱讀。被

39、試在窗口條件下的注視點的情況1. Xxxxhology means persxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxx xxxx xxxx xxxxxxx. Xxxx xx x *2. Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxs personality diaxxxxxx xxxx xxxx xxxxxxx. Xxxx xx x *3. Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xiagnosis from hanx xxxxxxx. Xxxx xx x *4. Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxx xxom hand writing. Xxxx xx x

40、 *“*”上方字母是被試注視的位置 總之，無論讀者往哪里看，哪里都會出現(xiàn)一定范圍的正常課文。窗口的移動是通過眼動來控制的。這種方法與其他的窗口技術比，有著更大的優(yōu)越性。 McCokie & Rayner用這種技術進行了一系列重大的實驗，如對閱讀知覺廣度的研究等等，得出許多重要的結(jié)論。舒華等(1996）采用移動窗口技術對中文閱讀過程中的字詞識別進行研究。被試是8名大學生，閱讀8篇科學文章（內(nèi)容涉及物理、化學、生物、天文、地理等學科）。其中四篇是讀者比較熟悉的科普文章，另外四篇是專業(yè)性較強的文章，一般讀者不熟悉。實驗是在計算機上用移動窗口技術進行的。窗口的呈現(xiàn)以詞為單位。實驗開始時，文章的開頭處是

41、一個十字注視點，被試按動反應鍵，第一個詞呈現(xiàn)，代替該位置上的下劃線，被試再按鍵時第二個詞呈現(xiàn)，取代原來的下劃線，而第一個詞消失，該位置變成空白。被試自己按鍵控制位置的呈現(xiàn)速度，每次按鍵，后一個詞呈現(xiàn)，前一個詞消失，計算機自動記錄詞的閱讀時間。該實驗為被試內(nèi)設計，其中因變量是每個詞的平均閱讀時間，自變量為可能影響字詞識別的六個因素：字的筆畫數(shù)、詞的詞頻、詞中的字數(shù)、詞的概念重要性、句子界限（位置中的詞被分成四類：在逗號尾的，在句號尾的，在段落尾的和在句子中的）、文章的難度。實驗結(jié)果表明:（1）在移動窗口條件下，讀者在閱讀中對詞是即時加工的，詞的注視時間受詞頻、詞中字數(shù)等詞本身特性的影響，因而，可

42、以在一定程度上反應詞的加工過程。詞的概念重要性表明，詞加工的時間還受到它在理解文章中的重要性的影響；（2）中文閱讀存在著界限效應，其中段落尾的效應最大，句號尾效應次之，逗號尾效應最小。表明詞的注視時間受到來自文章整合等理解的高級過程的影響；（3）與較易的文章相比，讀者閱讀較難的文章時，詞的平均加工時間增加，界限效應也增加。這再次表明，閱讀過程中的字詞識別過程是受字詞、句子、文章等多水平因素影響的。2.固定窗口法(stationary window method)有人(Aaronson & Ferres,1984)使用固定窗口法研究閱讀。在這種方法中，詞是在屏幕上某一固定位置（即窗口）上被連續(xù)地

43、呈現(xiàn)的。3.累積窗口技術(cumulative window method)此法與移動窗口法不同，按鍵后，新單詞出現(xiàn)，而剛看過的詞并不被掩蔽仍然停留在屏幕上，這種實驗條件下被試可以進行回視。（三）指定法(pointing method)被試使用一個裝置，如用鼠標器將光標指向計算機屏幕的某一位置，即可以看到這個位置上的詞，而其他詞則部分地被掩蔽，之所以說是部分地被掩蔽，是因為詞的長度、形狀信息仍然保留著。被試可以根據(jù)自己的需要將光標指向后繼內(nèi)容，也可以指向自己已經(jīng)看過的內(nèi)容，所以在使用指定法時，被試可以進行回視。The _ _ _ _ _ old _ _ _ _ man _ _ _ _ _ th

44、e _ _ _ _ bridge.The old man the bridge man used as a verbWhat does our confusion teach us?Didnt wait until the end of the sentence to create an interpretationWe have processing biases: prefer man to be a noun rather than a verb二、Decision Method(判定法)判定法是要求被試對某一個問題迅速作出判斷，通過考察反應時來分析被試的心理加工情況。 lexical

45、decision taskssemantic verification tasksDecision MethodIn lexical decision, participants decide whether letter/sound sequences are real words or not. Real words that are assumed to vary in ease of recognition are randomly mixed in with pronounceable nonwords (e.g., quention, stendle).Words and nonw

46、ords are presented to participants one at a time via computer. Participants decide as quickly and accurately as they can whether they are real words. The computer collects response times and error rates.Word Recognition: MethodsIn lexical decision, participants decide whether letter/sound sequences

47、are real words or not. Words that produce longer response times and more errors are assumed to be more difficult to identify than words producing faster response times and fewer errors.Lexical DecisionWhich of these letter sequences is a real word?pictureconvictdutoilconsutepraforransomyicketanswerM

48、eyer 等用詞匯判定法研究了語境詞對單詞識別的影響。實驗中給被試呈現(xiàn)如下的字母串，其中有的是英語單詞，有的不是，共有五種情況： 1. Nurse-Doctor（兩個有意義聯(lián)系的單詞） 2. Bread-Doctor（兩個無意義聯(lián)系的單詞） 3. Wine-Plame （前一個是單詞，后一個不是） 4. Plame-Wine （前一個不是單詞，后一個是） 5. Pable-Reab （兩個均不是單詞）每對詞連續(xù)地呈現(xiàn)，每次只呈現(xiàn)一個。要求被試判斷每個字母串是不是英語單詞。實驗結(jié)果表明，當兩個字母串是英語單詞，而且二者之間有意義聯(lián)系（第一種情況）時，被試對第二個字母串的判斷時間要比對兩個單詞之間

49、無意義聯(lián)系（第二種情況）時的判斷時間短4050毫秒。說明語境詞（也稱啟動詞，即每對詞中的第一個詞）的語義使目標詞（每對詞中的第二個詞）的語義表征得以快速激活，加快了單詞識別。（二） semantic verification tasks（語義驗證作業(yè)）語義驗證作業(yè)要求被試判斷一個關于范疇成員的陳述是否真實。如：A robin is a bird.A robin is an animal.結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)，對第一個句子的判斷時間比第二要短。說明robin與bird的聯(lián)系比robin與animal的聯(lián)系要緊密。這種現(xiàn)象叫做范疇大小效應，該現(xiàn)象為層次網(wǎng)絡模型提供了實驗支持。但是后來有人用這種方法研究發(fā)現(xiàn)了熟

50、悉效應、典型性效應和否定效應，這些結(jié)果則是層次網(wǎng)絡模型無法解釋的。三、命名法（Naming）在命名法中，要求被試閱讀一段文章，隨后，呈現(xiàn)一個視覺的目標刺激，要求被試用語言回答，回答的方式有讀出該目標詞，或用一個詞作答，或在stroop測驗中命名顏色。命名法比判定法更趨于自然，也就是說，讀出一個詞比判斷一個字母串是否為單詞來得自然。使用最廣泛的命名法是詞命名法（word naming method)：在這種方法中，要求被試閱讀計算機屏幕呈現(xiàn)的刺激。屏幕上最先出現(xiàn)一個視覺信號以提示目標刺激馬上要出現(xiàn)。提示信號呈現(xiàn)約500ms。要求被試盡可能快地讀出目標刺激。反應時通常用音鍵開關裝置來記錄。命名法被

51、用于研究從單詞水平到課文水平的加工。如，在詞水平上，有人(Stewart et al.,1969)在實驗中，向被試呈現(xiàn)從三個字母到十個字母長度的詞，測量從呈現(xiàn)這個詞到開始讀出這個詞之間的時間。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)：對于三個字母的詞的命名需要615ms，而對十個字母的詞的命名時間則需693ms。還有人(Ferreira,1991)發(fā)現(xiàn)：在句子水平上，命名的延遲時間與被試已經(jīng)記住的句子結(jié)構(gòu)呈一定的函數(shù)關系。句子內(nèi)部的短句結(jié)構(gòu)樹形圖越復雜，被試的反應延遲時間就越長。在課文水平，命名法被成功地用于揭示許多加工過程，如前后照應，精細推理等等。 NamingIn naming, participants read w

52、ritten words aloud (or shadow incoming speech).Words that are assumed to vary in ease of recognition are randomly intermixed. Words are presented to participants one at a time via computer. Participants say the words aloud as quickly and accurately as they can.The computer collects response times an

53、d error rates (voice initiation times).Words with longer response times and more errors are assumed to be more difficult to identify than words with faster response times and fewer errors.Lexical Decision versus NamingWhich method is better?Lexical decision involves an explicit post-access decision

54、(Lexical Decision time = recognition time + lexicality judgement time)requires lexical access (but is unnatural)Naminginvolves an implicit post-access component (Naming time = recognition time + time to retrieve output phonology).might be achieved non-lexically (using letter-sound pronunciation rule

55、s) but is naturalUnderstanding Words in Context Lexical Decision and Naming involve judging individual words as familiar and assigning phonological representations respectively.But skilled language comprehension relies on more; for instance, the ability to identify (albeit implicitly) words syntacti

56、c or grammatical categories. Understanding Words in ContextMisidentification of an ambiguous words grammatical category can adversely affect comprehension (Boland, 1997).She saw her duck and chickens near the barn.She saw her duck and stumble near the barn.Understanding Words in ContextCorrect ident

57、ification of an ambiguous words grammatical category (when it follows a syntactically constrained context, like 1), can reduce ambiguity effects, and thus facilitate comprehension (Folk & Morris, 2003).Laurie took the grape out of the fruit bowl and ate it.Laurie took the prune out of the fruit bowl

58、 and ate it.Sentence ComprehensionSentence comprehension relies on more than an understanding of individual words (lexical items): It also requires an understanding of the ways in which words are combined (syntactic or grammatical relations).Consider the following sentence fragments. The politician

59、accused the Governor of The plumber informed the owner of .Sentence Comprehension: Methods By contrast, data from on-line tasks provide us with information about the ease or difficulty of the processing involved in actually comprehending a sentence. Word-by-word reading Monitoring of eye movementsSe

60、ntence Comprehension: MethodsIn word-by-word readingparticipants press a button to see each new word in a sentence or passage of text. Usually, it builds up on a computer screen until the whole sentence is visible (cumulative).The computer records the amount of time between each button press.Using t