Chap-19收入與歧視(經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)原理,曼昆,中英文雙語(yǔ))

1、Earnings and Discrimination收入與歧視Chapter 19Differences in Earnings in the U.S. Today當(dāng)前美國(guó)的收入差距The typical physician earns about $200,000 a year. 普通醫(yī)生一年賺到20萬(wàn)美元左右。 The typical police officer earns about $50,000 a year. 普通警官一年賺到5萬(wàn)美元左右。The typical farm worker earns about $20,000 a year. 普通農(nóng)業(yè)工人一年賺到2萬(wàn)美元左右。W

2、hat causes earnings to vary so much?什么原因造成個(gè)人收入差距如此之大？Wages are governed by labor supply and labor demand. 工資由勞動(dòng)供給與勞動(dòng)需求決定。Labor demand reflects the marginal productivity of labor. 勞動(dòng)需求反映了勞動(dòng)的邊際生產(chǎn)率。What causes earnings to vary so much?什么原因造成個(gè)人收入差距如此之大？In equilibrium, each worker is paid the value of hi

3、s or her marginal contribution to the economys production of goods and services. 在均衡時(shí)，每個(gè)工人都得到了他對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)中物品與勞務(wù)生產(chǎn)的邊際貢獻(xiàn)的價(jià)值。Some Determinants of Equilibrium Wages決定均衡工資的若干因素Compensating differentials 補(bǔ)償性差別工資Human capital 人力資本Ability, effort, and chance 能力、努力和機(jī)遇Signaling 信號(hào)The superstar phenomenon 超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象Compe

4、nsating DifferentialsCompensating differentials refer to differences in wages that arises from nonmonetary characteristics of different jobs.Coal miners are paid more than others with similar levels of education.Night shift workers are paid more than day shift workers.Professors are paid less than l

5、awyers and doctors.補(bǔ)償性差別工資補(bǔ)償性差別工資 是指不同工作的非貨幣特性所引起的工資差別。煤礦工人得到的工資高于其他有相似教育水平的工人。夜班工人的工資高于同類白班工人。教授的工資低于受教育時(shí)間大致相同的律師和醫(yī)生。Human Capital 人力資本Human capital is the accumulation of investments in people. 人力資本對(duì)人的教育和在職培訓(xùn)投資的積累。The most important type of human capital is education. 最主要的人力資本是教育。Human CapitalEduc

6、ation represents an expenditure of resources at one point in time to raise productivity in the future.By the year 2000, a man with a college degree earned more than 89 percent more than without one. Women showed a 70 percent increase in earnings due to a college degree.人力資本 教育代表著為了提高未來(lái)生產(chǎn)率而在某一時(shí)點(diǎn)的資源支出

7、。 2000年，一個(gè)有大學(xué)學(xué)位的男人的平均收入比沒(méi)有大學(xué)學(xué)位的男人多89。對(duì)于婦女來(lái)說(shuō)，上大學(xué)的報(bào)酬高出70。Table 1 Average Annual Earnings by Educational AttainmentCopyright2004 South-Western表1. 受教育者的平均年收入Copyright2004 South-Western1980年2000年男人 高中，未上大學(xué) 36 430美元 36 770美元 大學(xué)畢業(yè) 52 492美元 69 421美元 大學(xué)水平的額外百分點(diǎn) 44 +89%婦女 高中，未上大學(xué) 14 953美元 17 898美元 大學(xué)畢業(yè) 23 170

8、美元 35 431美元 大學(xué)水平的額外百分點(diǎn) 55 +98%注釋：收入數(shù)據(jù)根據(jù)通貨膨脹進(jìn)行了調(diào)整，并用2000年美元表示。Why has the gap in earnings between skilled and unskilled workers risen in recent years?International trade has altered the relative demand for skilled and unskilled labor.Changes in technology have altered the relative demand for skilled

9、and unskilled labor.為什么近年熟練工人與非熟練工人之間的收入差距擴(kuò)大了呢？國(guó)際貿(mào)易改變了對(duì)熟練勞動(dòng)與非熟練勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)需求。技術(shù)變革改變了熟練勞動(dòng)與非熟練勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)需求。Ability, Effort, and ChanceNatural ability is important for workers in all occupations.Many personal characteristics determine how productive workers are and, therefore, play a role in determining the wages

10、 they earn.能力、努力和機(jī)遇對(duì)所有職業(yè)的工人來(lái)說(shuō)，天賦能力都是重要的。許多個(gè)人特點(diǎn)決定了工人的勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率，因此這些特點(diǎn)在決定工人所掙得的工資水平上起著重要作用。An Alternative View of Education: Signaling教育的另一種觀點(diǎn)：信號(hào)Firms use educational attainment as a way of sorting between high-ability and low-ability workers. 企業(yè)把教育狀況作為區(qū)分高能力工人與低能力工人的一種方法。It is rational for firms to interp

11、ret a college degree as a signal of ability. 企業(yè)把大學(xué)學(xué)位解釋為能力的信號(hào)是合理的。The Superstar PhenomenonSuperstars arise in markets that exhibit the following characteristics:Every customer in the market wants to enjoy the good supplied by the best producer.The good is produced with a technology that makes it poss

12、ible for the best producer to supply every customer at a low cost.超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象超級(jí)明星 產(chǎn)生在有兩個(gè)特點(diǎn)的市場(chǎng)上： 市場(chǎng)上每位顧客都想享受最優(yōu)生產(chǎn)者提供的物品。使最優(yōu)生產(chǎn)者以低成本向每位顧客提供物品成為可能的是生產(chǎn)這種物品所用的技術(shù)。Above-Equilibrium Wages: Minimum-Wage Laws, Unions, and Efficiency WagesWhy are some workers wages set above the level that brings supply and demand i

13、nto equilibrium?Minimum-wage lawsMarket power of labor unionsEfficiency wages高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資為什么一些工人的工資確定在高于使勞動(dòng)供求均衡的水平上？最低工資法工會(huì)的市場(chǎng)勢(shì)力效率工資Above-Equilibrium Wages: Minimum-Wage Laws, Unions, and Efficiency Wages UnionsA union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and worki

14、ng conditions.StrikeA strike refers to the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union.高于均衡工資: 最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資工會(huì)工會(huì) 與雇主談判工資和工作條件的工人協(xié)會(huì)。罷工罷工工會(huì)有 組織地從企業(yè)撤出勞動(dòng)。Above-Equilibrium Wages: Minimum-Wage Laws, Unions, and Efficiency Wages Efficiency WagesThe theory of efficiency wages holds that a firm can

15、 find it profitable to pay high wages because doing so increases the productivity of its workers. High wages may: reduce worker turnover. increase worker effort. raise the quality of workers that apply for jobs at the firm.高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資效率工資效率工資 認(rèn)為，企業(yè)會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)支付高工資是有利的，因?yàn)檫@樣做提高了工人的生產(chǎn)率。 高工資會(huì):減少工人的流動(dòng)性；

16、提高工人的努力程度；提高適應(yīng)企業(yè)的工人素質(zhì)。The Economics of DiscriminationDiscrimination occurs when the marketplace offers different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristics.歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)當(dāng)市場(chǎng)向那些僅僅是種族、宗教、性別、年齡或其他個(gè)人特征不同的相似個(gè)人提供了不同的機(jī)會(huì)時(shí)，就出現(xiàn)了歧視。The Economi

17、cs of Discrimination歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)Although discrimination is an emotionally charged topic, economists try to study the topic objectively in order to separate myth from reality.雖然歧視是一個(gè)經(jīng)常引起激烈爭(zhēng)論的情緒化話題，但經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家力圖客觀地研究這個(gè)題目，以便把假象與真實(shí)分開(kāi)。Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Discrimination is often measured by l

18、ooking at the average wages of different groups.常常通過(guò)觀察不同群體的平均工資差別來(lái)衡量勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上的歧視程度。Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Even in a labor market free of discrimination, different people have different wages.即使在一個(gè)沒(méi)有歧視的勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上，不同人的工資也不同。Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量People differ in t

19、he amount of human capital they have and in the kinds of work they are willing and able to do.人們擁有的人力資本量以及能夠并愿意從事的工作種類不同。Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Simply observing differences in wages among broad groups white and black, men and women says little about the prevalence of discrimin

20、ation.簡(jiǎn)單地觀察不同群體白人與黑人、男人與女人之間的工資差別并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明歧視的普遍性。Table 2 Median Annual Earnings by Race and SexCopyright2004 South-WesternTable 2. 不同種族與性別的平均收入Copyright2004 South-Western男人 38 870美元 30 403美元 22女人 28 080美元 25 107美元 11女人工資低 28 17（百分比）注釋：2000年數(shù)據(jù)。 白種人 黑種人 黑種人收入低（百分比）Measuring Labor-Market DiscriminationBeca

21、use the differences in average wages among groups in part reflect differences in human capital and job characteristics, they do not by themselves say anything about how much discrimination there is in the labor market.勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量由于不同群體之間平均工資的差別部分反映了人力資本和工作特性的差別，這些差別本身對(duì)勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上有多大歧視并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明什么。Discrimination

22、by Employers 雇主的歧視行為Firms that do not discriminate will have lower labor costs when they hire the employees discriminated against.當(dāng)不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)雇傭受歧視的雇員時(shí)，這些企業(yè)的勞動(dòng)成本更低。Discrimination by Employers 雇主的歧視行為Nondiscriminatory firms will tend to replace firms that discriminate.不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)取代了進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)。Discrimination b

23、y Employers Competitive markets tend to limit the impact of discrimination on wages.Firms that do not discriminate will be more profitable than those firms that do discriminate.雇主的歧視行為競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)將比進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)更具有贏利性。Discrimination by Customers and GovernmentsAlthough the profit motive is

24、a strong force acting to eliminate discriminatory wage differentials, there are limits to its corrective abilities.Customer preferencesGovernment policies顧客與政府的歧視行為雖然利潤(rùn)動(dòng)機(jī)是消除歧視性工資差別的一種強(qiáng)大力量，但也存在著針對(duì)這種力量的矯正能力的限制。顧客偏好政府政策Discrimination by Customers and GovernmentsCustomer preferences: If customers have d

25、iscriminatory preferences, a competitive market is consistent with a discriminatory wage differential. This will happen when customers are willing to pay to maintain the discriminatory practice.顧客與政府的歧視行為顧客偏好: 如果顧客有歧視偏好，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性企業(yè)就與歧視性工資差別相一致。這種情況只有在顧客愿意為他們的歧視性行為付出代價(jià)時(shí)才會(huì)發(fā)生。Discrimination by Customers and

26、Governments顧客與政府的歧視行為Government policies: When the government mandates discriminatory practices or requires firms to discriminate, this may also lead to discriminatory wage differentials.政府政策：當(dāng)政府命令實(shí)行歧視性作法或者要求企業(yè)進(jìn)行歧視時(shí)，將會(huì)導(dǎo)致歧視性工資差別。The Debate Over Comparable Worth關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論According to the doctrine of co

27、mparable worth, jobs deemed comparable should be paid the same wage.根據(jù)同工同酬學(xué)說(shuō)，可以相比的工作應(yīng)該得到相同的工資。The Debate Over Comparable Worth關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論Advocates of comparable worth want jobs to be rated according to a set of impartial criteria such as education, experience, responsibility, working conditions, and s

28、o on.同工同酬的支持者根據(jù)一套客觀的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)教育、經(jīng)驗(yàn)、責(zé)任、工作條件等等來(lái)評(píng)價(jià)工作。The Debate Over Comparable Worth關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論Critics of comparable worth argue that a competitive market is the best mechanism for setting wages.同工同酬的批評(píng)者認(rèn)為，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)是決定工資的最好機(jī)制。SummaryWorkers earn different wages for many reasons.To some extent, wage differentials co

29、mpensate workers for job attributes.Workers with more human capital get paid more than workers with less human capital.小結(jié)工人由于許多原因而賺到不同的工資。在某種程度上，工資差別是對(duì)工人工作性質(zhì)的補(bǔ)償。人力資本多的工人得到的工資高于人力資本少的工人。Summary 小結(jié)The return to accumulating human capital is high and has increased over the past decade. 累積的人力資本的收益是高的，而且在過(guò)去的十年里一直在增加。There is much variation in earnings that cannot be explained by things economists can measure. 有許多收入差別不能用經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家可以衡量的事情來(lái)解釋。SummaryThe unexplained variation in earnings is largely attributable to natural ability, effort, and chance.Some economists argue that more-educated work