語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程的ChapterFour的課件

1、1Chapter Four From Word to Text4.1 Syntactic Relations4.2 Grammatical Construction and its Constituents4.3 Syntactic Functions4.4 Category4.5 Phrase, Clause, and Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.7 Beyond the Sentence2Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined t

2、o form sentences in a language, the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Or the study of grammatical relations between words and other units within the sentence.4.1 Syntactic relations (句法關(guān)系) Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of positio

3、nrelations of substitutabilityrelations of co-occurrence344.1.1 Relations of Position For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. Two of the most common methods to convey this sort of informat

4、ion in human language are through positional relation (word order) and affixation. The boy kicked the ball. NP1 NP2 Subject ObjectPositional relation (Word order) (a) It refers to the sequential arrangement of elements, whether words or more commonly, phrases in a language. 5(b) If the words in a se

5、ntence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball.*Boy the ball kicked the.*The ball kicked the boy.The teacher saw the students. The students saw the teac

6、her.(c) Positional relation (Word order) is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and area classifications) to classify languages in the world. SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 6(d) Positional

7、 relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations. Syntagmatic (組合) refers to the relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc: e.g. the relat

8、ion between s, p, and r in a form such as spring, or the relation between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts.4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability (可替代性)It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. 7The_ smi

9、les. man boy girlIt also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set. strong man The tallest boy smiles. pretty girl yesterday.He went there last week. the day before yesterday.8Paradigmatic (Relation)(聚合關(guān)系) It refers

10、to the relation between an individual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence, e.g. the relation between cat and any other unit (dog, house, etc.) that can replace it in the sequence I saw the cat. Also the relation between p in spear and t in steer. 4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence(共

11、現(xiàn))In linguistics and phonology it means that according to the grammatical and lexical rules of a language two units share the syntagmatical relation of co-occurrence. For example, /s/ co-occurs with /p/ and /r/ in spring;The article a co-occurs with boy (collocation).Co-occurrence restriction (selec

12、tional restriction) which restricts the choice of individual lexical (phonological) units in construction with other lexical (phonological) units. 9In terms of syntax it means a word or a phrase of one class permits or requires the co-occurrence of another special ones to form a part of clause or a

13、clause. For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjectives and followed by a verbal phrase. Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations. 104.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents Grammar means “any systemat

14、ic account of the structure of a language, the patterns that it describes, the branch of linguistics concerned with such patterns.” It is oftenrestricted to relations among units that have meaning. Used by Chomsky in the1960s of the knowledge of a language developed in the minds of its speakers. Up

15、to now there emerge the following grammars. Descriptive grammar對(duì)見于一個(gè)言語(yǔ)或文字樣品的語(yǔ)言做 出系統(tǒng)的描寫。Reference grammar對(duì)一種語(yǔ)言句法和形態(tài)做全面描寫的 語(yǔ)法。Theoritical grammar 不限于研究個(gè)別語(yǔ)言，而是易語(yǔ)言數(shù)據(jù)作手段對(duì)語(yǔ)言本身的性質(zhì)、成功的語(yǔ)言分析所需的各種范疇和程序提出一些理論見解。11Formal grammar 集中研究語(yǔ)言的形式的語(yǔ)法。Comparative grammar 結(jié)合理論和描寫方法對(duì)不同語(yǔ)言 或同一語(yǔ)言的不同狀態(tài)的形式加以比較。Traditional gramma

16、r 指有人用這一名稱概括前語(yǔ)言學(xué)時(shí) 代語(yǔ)法研究的各種態(tài)度和方法。Narrow grammar語(yǔ)法指語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)的一個(gè)層面，可以獨(dú)立 于音系學(xué)和語(yǔ)義學(xué)的研究，通常包括句法學(xué)和形 態(tài)學(xué)， 研究詞和構(gòu)詞成分如何組合起來形成句子。Broad grammar 一種語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)關(guān)系的整個(gè)系統(tǒng)，如層次 語(yǔ)法、系統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法、和生成語(yǔ)法。廣義的語(yǔ)法包括句 法、音系學(xué)、和語(yǔ)義學(xué)。如果一部語(yǔ)法能夠界定說話人掌握的全不規(guī)則，就是語(yǔ)言能力語(yǔ)法（competence grammar）; 如果一部語(yǔ)法只能說明說話人實(shí)際使用過的句子，就是（performance grammar）。 124.2.1 Grammatical Constru

17、ction(構(gòu)建) Refers to the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between elements. On the level of syntax, we distinguish any construction in a language for its external and internal properties.The external syntax of a construction is a

18、description of the properties of a construction as a whole: clausal type, phrasal type, etc.The internal syntax of a construction is a description of the construction. A case of a specific construction, or a specific sequence of functional units. Subject +predicate + object. I have a dream.or Deitic

19、 + nominal group, etc.an appleate an appleMary ate an apple132.2 Constituents and Phrase Structure Constituent (組構(gòu)成分) is a part of a larger linguistic unit.E.g. the adjective phrase very friendly is a constituent of the noun phrase very friendly people.Several constituents together form a constructi

20、on. the girl (NP) ate the apple (VP) The girl ate the apple (S) The immediate constituents of a unit are the largest such parts. For example, the immediate constituents of meeting very friendly people are meeting and very friendly people.14The analysis of sentences into constituents is called immedi

21、ate constituent analysis, which was developed especially by the post-Bloomfieldians, whose underlying aim was to establish divisions that would allow the simplest account of the distributions of units.Constituency (成分組構(gòu)) means a relation ,especially in syntax, between a unit which is part of a large

22、r unit and the whole of which it is a part. The constituency is often shown by a tree diagram or by square brackets.A constituent structure is a representation of relations of Constituency. Thus a phrase structure tree is, alternatively, a constituent structure tree. 15Phrase Structure Tree S NP VPD

23、et N V NP Det NThe girl ate the apple16Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) S (mother node) NP VP (daughter node)DT N V NP DT N The girl ate the apple.Tree Diagramthe girl atethe apple17 S NP VP (sister nodes)DET N Finite V STEM(BASE) SUFFIXThe clock has stop (ed)the clockhas stoped18Word-le

24、velPhrasalN=nounA=adjective V=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionS=sentence or clauseNP=noun phraseVP=verb phraseAP=adjective phrasePP=preposition phraseThe syntactical categories used to label the nodesBracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in repre

25、senting the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit. (The) (girl)(ate)(the) (apple)SNPDet TheN girlVPV ateNPDet theN apple194.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions(向心和離心構(gòu)式)The syntactic constructions are classified into endocentric and exocentric constructions.Endocentric construct

26、ion (向心構(gòu)式) is one in which at least one element is of the same syntactic class as the whole. E.g. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate

27、 to the Head. The big tree near the teaching buildingShe has to study hard.20Exocentric construction(離心構(gòu)式) refers to a construction in which no element is the same syntactic class as the whole. There is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group. 21It usually includes the construction of sente

28、nces prepositional phrases In Washington, a predicate (verb + object) the connective construction (be + complement)The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)He kicked the ball.

29、 (Neither constituent stands for the verb- object sequence.)John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)224.2.4 Coordination and Subordination (并列和主從)Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents, coordination

30、 and subordination. 4.2.4.1Coordination (parataxis并聯(lián)關(guān)系) is a relation between two or more separate and syntactically equivalent parts of a sentence when they are grouped together with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . John and his sister met me.I looked but I could not see them.I b

31、ought a book and a bag.Coordination of NPs: NP the lady or NP the tigerCoordination of VPs: VP go to the library and VP read a book 23Coordination of PPs: PP down the stairs and PP out the door Coordination of APs: AP quite expensive and AP very beautifulCoordination of Ss:S John loves Mary and S Ma

32、ry loves John too4.2.4.2 Subordination (hypo-taxis主次關(guān)系) It refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. It is also called dependency or modification.24The subordin

33、ate constituents are words which modify the head.Swimming in the lake (is fun). Head(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance. HeadConsequently, they can be called modifiers. Subordinator is a word, etc. which marks a clause as subordinate. He finished reading the book before I got home.Clauses can be u

34、sed as subordinate constituents and there are three basic types of subordinate clauses. 25(a) Complement clausesJohn believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman.(b) Adjunct (or adverbial) clausesElizabeth opened her presents before John finished his dinner. (c) Relative clausesThe woman t

35、hat I love is moving to the south. 4.3. Syntactic Function A role that a word or other unit fills in relation to other elements in its construction. The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. E.g. the constru

36、ction of I like travelling relates the syntactic roles of subject and predicate, or subject, predicator, and direct object. 26Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc. 4.3.1 Subject A syntactic element in e.g. English which is tradition

37、ally seen as representing someone or something of which something is said or predicated, and which in addition, includes the agent in a basic transitive construction. It can be realized by linguistic units such as a noun, a nominal phrase, or a clause. Subject ordinarily precedes the predicate in st

38、atements.In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case(主格). The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.pater filium amat (the father loves the son)patrum filius amat (the son

39、 loves the father) 27In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. E.g. Mary kicked John.But it is clearly wrong in the following examples.John was bitten by a dog. John underwent major

40、 heart surgery. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” and “l(fā)ogical subject”.A grammatical subject means a subject in the usual sense. I come from a hinterland.28A logical subject means an element seen as a subject in that, like th

41、e subject in many basic transitive constructions, it identifies who or what is responsible for an action or process. E.g. Smokers die of lung cancer.Psychological subject means an element seen as subject in that, like many subjects in the usual sense, it identifies who or what a sentence is about.On

42、 Monday I have four classes on the Longquan campus.Yesterday I was delayed by fog.Psychological grammatical logical subject subject subject29Pro-forms (代形式): Any form, such as a pronoun, that is treated as standing for another form whose meaning can be understood. (pronoun, do, so, etc.)When functio

43、ning as a subject, the first person pronouns in English appear in special forms, which are not used when the pronouns occur in other positions (so do the third person pronouns). I love him. We threw stones at them.He / she loves me. They threw stones at us.Agreement with the verb Agreement means a s

44、yntactical relation between words and phrases which are compatible, in a given construction, by virtue / means of inflections carried by at least one of them.30For example, in the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of t

45、he object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb. He / She angers him. He / She angers them. Content questions (實(shí)意問句) If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as inJohn stole the Queens pictur

46、e from the British Council.Who stole the Queens picture from the British council? 31But when any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject. What would John steal, if he had the chance? What did John steal from the British Council?

47、Where did John steal the Queens picture from?A Tag question(疑問尾句) is a reduced form, such as You will come, will you? Jane has arrived, hasnt she?Tag questions are used to inform a negative or positive confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and ne

48、ver to any other element in the sentence. 32Tag questions in English are usually linked to declarative, but may also follow an imperative.Put it on the desk, will you?Tag questions show reversed polarity：Jane has arrived, hasnt she? (positive + negative)Jane hasnt arrived, has she? (negative+ positi

49、ve) 4.3.2 Predicate (謂語(yǔ)） It refers to a part of a clause or sentence traditionally seen as representing what is said of, or predicated of, the subject, which is realized by a verb or other unit which takes a set of arguments within a sentence.I recaptured confidence last semester.Predication(謂項(xiàng)) mea

50、ns the relation of either a predicate to its subject or of a predicate to its arguments.33 Predicator (謂詞) means an element in a clause that determines, wholly or in part, the other elements that its construction may or must have. Recapture (two-place predicate ) I confidence (arguments)Predicative

51、(表語(yǔ)) means adjective, etc which forms part of a predicate and has a direct semantic relation to the subject.She was angry.Sometimes I feel puzzled about my life.4.3.3 Object (賓語(yǔ)) It is an element in the basic sentence construction of a sentence, which characteristically represents someone or somethi

52、ng , other than that represented by the subject, and which characteristically includes the semantic role of patient (goal, recipient).34I loved her very much at high school.I often bought her gifts. I said that I did.Object also means an element standing in a similar relation of government or comple

53、mentation to a preposition.I come from a hinterland.Not all nominal phrases can be identified as objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.He died last week.The match lasted three hours.So modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a

54、 passive transformation.John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John.35In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case(受格) for direct object. He hit him. She saw her.and the dative case(與格) for indirect object (realized by word order or prepositional phrases

55、such as to or for):He offers a lot of help to me.He offers me a lot of help.364.3.4 The relation between Classes and functionsThere is no one-to-one correspondence between classes and functions.(a) A class item can perform several functions. The boys are playing football. (subject and object)The mob

56、ile phone is a communications instrument. He came here last month. (adv)(b) A function can be realized (fulfilled) by several classes.The dog is barking.She is smiling at you.To run with time is a tough challenge for me.37Lecture Six 4.4 Category (范疇) It means any class or system of grammatical or l

57、exical units distinguished at some level in the structure of a language. For example, noun phrase is a syntactical category while tense and case are inflectional or morhpo-syntactical categories. Category (categor-zie, ization, ial, recategorize) 范疇，語(yǔ)類（范疇/語(yǔ)類化，范疇/語(yǔ)類的，重新范疇/語(yǔ)類化）語(yǔ)言學(xué)在各種抽象層次上使用的通用術(shù)語(yǔ)。范疇化（c

58、ategorization）指人類將經(jīng)驗(yàn)組織成各種一般概念及相關(guān)語(yǔ)言符號(hào)的整體過程。在語(yǔ)法領(lǐng)域里，范疇化指確立一組用于語(yǔ)言描寫的分類單位或特性，它們的基本分布相同，并在語(yǔ)言中始終以一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)單位出現(xiàn)。38 一個(gè)單位的所屬范疇可能發(fā)生變化，稱之為重新范疇化(recategorize)。有的理論中范疇（category）一詞指類本身，如名詞、動(dòng)詞；主語(yǔ)、謂語(yǔ)；名詞短語(yǔ)、動(dòng)詞短語(yǔ)等（相應(yīng)的縮寫符號(hào)稱為范疇符號(hào)（category symbols)。再具體一些，“范疇”又指定義這些一般單位的特征：名詞范疇包括：性、數(shù)、格、可數(shù)性這樣一些范疇。動(dòng)詞包括：時(shí)、體、態(tài)。這最后一層意思上的范疇稱為語(yǔ)法范疇。常與主

59、語(yǔ)、賓語(yǔ)、補(bǔ)語(yǔ)這種語(yǔ)法功能（功能范疇：functional category）區(qū)別開來。LexiconNoun verbGender,number,case,countablity tense, aspect oice 394.4.1 Number(數(shù)) It is an inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one. The simplest distinction is between singular and plural

60、. But many languages also distinguish, esp. a dual (two). In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs. They laugh.40In other languages, for e