英語寫作中信息組織

1、英語寫作中的信息組織1一、引言在語篇的展開過程中，發(fā)話者需要根據(jù)信息流(information flow) 的推進(jìn)合理地組織和編排信息，從而保證語篇的信息連貫。2在語篇信息流的推進(jìn)過程中，信息的編排一方面要受到交際目的的制約，即語篇要傳遞一定的信息，另一方面又受到交際者認(rèn)知局限性的制約，即信息的編排要符合人類的一般認(rèn)知規(guī)律，以便使受話者以較小的認(rèn)知努力獲取信息。3發(fā)話者為保證語篇信息流的暢通，需要時常對受話者的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)作出假設(shè)，以便決定將哪些信息處理為已知信息或背景信息，哪些信息處理為新信息或前景信息。4二、信息連貫與意義連貫信息：語言學(xué)所說的信息指的是以語言為載體所傳輸?shù)南?nèi)容（徐盛桓19

2、96：5）。 信息與意義有何區(qū)別？5句子的意義是句子內(nèi)部語言成分之間相互作用的結(jié)果，并且是保持穩(wěn)定的，而句子的信息價值取決于交際者的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)。某一命題意義是否具有信息價值完全取決于該命題意義能否改變受話者對世界的心理表征（mental representation）。 （ Lambrecht1994：43）6一方面，同一個句子所表達(dá)的意義是相對固定的，但其信息價值則是因人而異的。 (1) John bought the car yesterday. 7另一方面，深層結(jié)構(gòu)相同但表層結(jié)構(gòu)不同的句子所表達(dá)的命題意義是相同的，但在信息結(jié)構(gòu)上表現(xiàn)出明顯的差別。 (2) a. The rain destr

3、oyed the crops. b. The crops were destroyed by the rain. (Widdowson 1978: 2)8英語寫作、語篇組織、語篇制作Halliday (1994)：語篇是一個語義單位van Dijk (1977)：語義連貫 微觀結(jié)構(gòu)/宏觀結(jié)構(gòu) (microstructure/macrostructure) 局部連貫/整體連貫 (local coherence/global coherence9(3) This morning I had a toothache. I went to the dentist. The dentist has a

4、big car. The car was brought in New York. New York has had serious financial troubles.10語義連貫是語篇合格性的充分條件嗎？我們暫不考慮語用連貫語義連貫是必要條件，而不是充分條件11McCarthy (1991):(4) Dear Joan, Im sitting here at my desk writing to you. Outside my window is a big lawn surrounded by trees, and in the middle of the lawn is a flow

5、er bed. It was full of daffodils and tulips in the spring. Youd love it here. You must come and stay sometime; weve got plenty of room. Love, Sally12(5) Dear Joan, Me, Im sitting here at my desk writing to you. Whats outside my window is a big lawn surrounded by trees and its a flower bed thats in t

6、he middle of the lawn. When it was full of daffodils and tulips was in the spring. Here youd love it. Its you who must come and stay sometime; What weve got is plenty of room. Love, Sally13Halliday (1978):(6) Now comes the President here. Its the window hes stepping through to wave to the crowd. On

7、his victory his opponent congratulates him. What they are shaking now is hands. A speech is going to be made by him. Gentlemen and ladies. That you are confident in me honours me. I shall, hereby pledge I, turn this country into a place, in which what people do safely will be live, and the ones who

8、grow up happily will be able to be their children. 14金立鑫 (2000):(7) 從前有座山，山上有座廟，廟里有個老和尚，老和尚在給小和尚講故事。老和尚說(8) * 從前有座山，有座廟在山上，有個老和尚在廟里，小和尚在聽老和尚講故事。老和尚說 15如果把寫作看作是信息組織的過程，作者在語篇的展開過程中需要根據(jù)對讀者的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)的假設(shè)合理地編排信息，同時在信息的組織上能夠使讀者以較小的認(rèn)知努力獲取信息。16這就要求作者在信息的組織過程中根據(jù)語篇信息流的需要對語言結(jié)構(gòu)做出調(diào)整，從而使語言結(jié)構(gòu)的選擇服從于語篇的信息連貫。17三、語篇的信息組織方式語

9、篇的連貫性常常被解釋為語篇各組成部分在意義上的連接關(guān)系（Brown & Yule 1983；Crystal 1992；stman & Virtanen 1995）。許多語言學(xué)家也大都從語義、語用和認(rèn)知等角度來探討語篇在意義上的連貫性，如van Dijk（1977）的宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)理論、Mann & Thompson（1988）的修辭結(jié)構(gòu)理論以及Beaugrande & Dressler（1981）的程序操作模式等等。18但是，從信息傳遞的角度看，語篇不只是意義的載體，同時也是信息的載體，因此一個合格的語篇在信息上也必須是連貫的。19什么是信息結(jié)構(gòu)？信息是已知或可預(yù)測與未知或不可預(yù)測之間的張力Info

10、rmation is the tension between what is already known or predictable and what is new or unpredictable (Halliday 1994: 296). 信息結(jié)構(gòu)涉及將話語劃分為信息單元，并把信息單元中最重要的部分標(biāo)記出來。Information structure includes the division of what is said into units of information and the signalling of portions of those information unit

11、s that are most important (Fries 1994: 230). 信息結(jié)構(gòu)的交際效果就是將小句信息內(nèi)容的某些方面前景化，并將其余方面背景化。The communicative effect of information structure is to foreground certain aspects of the message of the clause, but to background others.20信息結(jié)構(gòu)的理論Given New (Halliday 1994, Chafe 1992)Presuppostion Assertion/Focus (Cho

12、msky 1971, Jackendoff 1972, Gundel 1988, Lambrecht 1994 )Backgrounding Foregrounding (Tomlin 1985 )21Given New 在語言交際過程中，發(fā)話者總要傳遞一定的信息，并且把自己所要傳遞的信息以信息單元（information unit）的形式組織起一定的信息結(jié)構(gòu)，并通過語言結(jié)構(gòu)形式表達(dá)出來。Halliday（1994: 296）認(rèn)為，信息單元是由新信息和舊信息構(gòu)成的，而信息則生成于新舊信息的相互作用之中。22信息的新與舊是根據(jù)發(fā)話者對受話者的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)的假設(shè)來確定的。舊信息指的是發(fā)話者認(rèn)為受話者可

13、以復(fù)原的(recoverable) 的信息，即上文提及過的事物、處于語境中的事物以及正在談?wù)撝械氖挛铮恍滦畔⒅傅氖前l(fā)話者認(rèn)為受話者不可復(fù)原的信息，即上文未提及過的事物或意想不到的事物（不管上文是否提及過）。23(9) Yesterday I saw a little girl get bitten by a dog. I tried to catch the dog, but it ran away. 24GivenNew. GivenNew. GivenNew.(10) Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in 1899 at Oak Park, a highl

14、y respectable suburb of Chicago, where his father, a keen sportsman, was a doctor. He was the second of six children. The family spent holidays in a lakeside hunting lodge in Michigan, near Michigan settlements. Although energetic and successful in all school activities, Ernest twice run away from h

15、ome before joining the Kansas City Star as a cub reporter in 1917. (Cook 1989: 63)25Given Ernest Miller Hemingway was born . where his father, He was The family New in 1899 at Oak Park, a highly respectable suburb of Chicago. a keen sportsman, was a doctor. the second of six children. spent holidays

16、 in a lakeside hunting lodge in Michigan, near Indian settlements.26Presupposition Assertion/Focus發(fā)話者在發(fā)出一個語段時往往同時表達(dá)了預(yù)設(shè)信息和斷言信息。斷言信息構(gòu)成了信息流中的新信息，而預(yù)設(shè)信息則是信息結(jié)構(gòu)的起點，它所傳遞的是發(fā)話者對共知信息的假設(shè)或交際雙方所共同接受的信息。27(11) It is the boy who is petting the cat. (Given: X is petting the cat; Focus: X = the boy)(12) What the boy

17、is petting is the cat. (Given: the boy is petting X; Focus: X = the cat)(13)Nobody else had known where the entrance to the cave was situated. *What John discovered was the cave.28Backgrounding Foregrounding 前景信息和背景信息涉及語篇中的設(shè)景結(jié)構(gòu)（grounding structure）。前景信息對語篇的展開起關(guān)鍵的主導(dǎo)作用，構(gòu)成語篇發(fā)展的主線。背景信息對語篇的發(fā)展和情節(jié)的展開起鋪墊作用，

18、有助于前景信息的表達(dá)。 29設(shè)景結(jié)構(gòu)中的前景信息和背景信息與語法系統(tǒng)之間存在著密切的聯(lián)系。Hopper（1979）、Hopper & Thompson（1980）以及Tomlin（1985，1987）：特別是在敘述語篇中，前景信息與背景信息的區(qū)分往往與句法特征聯(lián)系在一起：30（一）動詞體：前景信息由完成體表達(dá)，背景信息由非完成體表達(dá)；（二）語序；（三）語態(tài)；（四）小詞（particle）的使用；（五）及物性：前景信息與高度及物的特征聯(lián)系在一起;背景信息與低度及物的特征聯(lián)系在一起；（六）主從結(jié)構(gòu)：前景信息往往與主句相吻合，背景信息往往與從句相吻合（Chafe 1992a）。31(14) John

19、 got up early. He didnt catch the early bus.(15) John got up early, but didnt catch the early bus.(16) Although John got up early, he didnt catch the early bus.(17) John got up early, although he didnt catch the early bus.32在語篇的生成過程中，發(fā)話者為保證語篇信息流的暢通，需要時常對受話者的認(rèn)知狀態(tài)作出假設(shè)，以便決定將哪些信息處理為已知信息或背景信息，哪些信息處理為新信息或

20、前景信息，從而合理地編排信息。33在語言交際過程中，發(fā)話者不但要使語篇具有一定的信息量（informativeness），而且還要使信息具有最佳的可及性 (accessibility)。這是因為在語篇信息流的推進(jìn)過程中，信息的編排： 一方面要受到交際目的的制約，即語篇要傳遞一定的信息（新信息或前景信息）。 另一方面又受到交際者認(rèn)知局限性的制約，即信息的編排要符合人類的一般認(rèn)知規(guī)律，以便使受話者以較小的認(rèn)知努力獲取信息（已知信息或背景信息作為出發(fā)點或鋪墊）。34由此看來，語篇的信息連貫與信息內(nèi)容傳遞的方式之間存在著密切的關(guān)系。換句話說，信息連貫不是意義上的連貫，而是與信息單元中的成分在信息傳遞過

21、程中的信息狀態(tài)和交際價值有關(guān)。 35四、小句位置與信息組織從句與主句的排列順序與信息結(jié)構(gòu)有關(guān)。36Biber et al（1999：835）指出，許多前置狀語從句包含已知信息，即上文已經(jīng)提及的信息，而主句呈現(xiàn)新信息。因此，當(dāng)包含已知信息的狀語從句前置時，具有承上啟下的語篇銜接功能。相反，如果主句包含已知信息的話，表達(dá)新信息的狀語從句通常出現(xiàn)在末端位置。37(18)Its not the rummy that aggravates my blood pressure. If there were no cards, there would still be the stock market, a

22、nd if there werent the stock market, there would be the condomium in Florida.(19) The houses were perched precariously up the hillsides Because it was so hilly the area seemed constantly to be in a dark blue haze.(20) Neither will need to become a forced seller if the property market gets really nas

23、ty.38前置狀語從句還可以為后續(xù)語篇提供框架（Biber et al 1999：836）。當(dāng)狀語從句為后續(xù)語篇設(shè)定情景時，需要出現(xiàn)在句首位置，充當(dāng)背景信息。(20)When the president sent Congress his 419epistle on the economy Tuesday, all the hits from yesteryear were playing once again: Tax cuts to stimulate growth. Balanced budgets down the road just a bit, accomplished witho

24、ut the need for higher taxes. Promises of economic growth as far as the eye can see. Just as they did with Reagans economic outlooks, the critics griped.39在因果關(guān)系的主從結(jié)構(gòu)中，原因與結(jié)果的排列順序也會受到語篇因素的制約。一般認(rèn)為，因果關(guān)系的無標(biāo)記語序是原因在前，結(jié)果在后，因為原因在時間上先于結(jié)果（van Dijk 1977）。但Schiffrin（1985）的研究表明情況并非如此。40在語篇的層面上，因果關(guān)系的語序與語篇的話題連續(xù)性有很大

25、關(guān)系。話題連續(xù)性制約著“X so Y”與“Y because X”的使用。當(dāng)上文的話題為X時，“X so Y”的出現(xiàn)頻率更高；當(dāng)上文的話題為Y時，“Y because X”的出現(xiàn)頻率更高。41（21）What is perhaps less obvious, but even more important, is the way in which the plausible deniability rule protects the cuckolded spousewhom we will assume, for present purposes, to be the wife. It mig

26、ht be thought that the pretence of secrecy is a male supremacist device designed to cover up the sins of errant husbands. But in fact the old rule helps to redress a natural imbalance of power that favours men. In real life, most often it is men who not only seek but also benefit from affairs which

27、threaten marriages, because they can (and often do) remarry a younger, prettier mate.Y because X42（22） Since my voting in these elections is founded on ignorance and indifference, it might be more honest not to vote at all. I vote because I recognise that some of us must in order to keep the mechani

28、sm ticking over, just in case we really need it at some point.43X so Y（23） In fact, we do admire people for qualities they did not create, but inherited. And it is hard to disentangle（區(qū)分）talent from effort, so by rewarding superior performance we also reward graft（艱苦工作）.44（24）Moreover, throughout th

29、e world, a growing proportion of desirable jobs are now graduate only. We needed more graduates “to avoid losing competitive advantage, ”as the CBI says; we now have the graduates, so everything is set fair.45Degand（2000）也指出，主、從句的選擇及其語序容易受到語篇上下文的影響，因為說話者或作者需要根語篇上下文的主題來組織語篇。(25) In my time at Oxford,

30、 I do not think I encountered a single person who admitted that they were opposed to the university establishing a business school. But I heard dozens of objections to the procedures used to establish it. And because the procedures are ill-defined, there is always a case for these criticisms. Anothe

31、r tactic is deferral (延期）. Because time is not valued and urgency is not felt, it is thought unreasonable to resist the suggestion that a decision be delayed. 46五、小句狀態(tài)與信息編排在語篇的層面上，有些信息構(gòu)成語篇發(fā)展的主線，此類信息為前景信息（foreground information）；有些信息只是為語篇的發(fā)展設(shè)定情景或提供預(yù)設(shè)信息，服務(wù)于前景信息的表達(dá)，此類信息為背景信息（background information）。 47

32、Tomlin（1985）通過研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，語篇中的前景信息是通過獨立小句表達(dá)的，背景信息是通過從屬小句表達(dá)的。48在語篇的發(fā)展過程中，并不是所有的相關(guān)信息都具有同等的重要性，發(fā)話者為了突出主要信息并保證信息傳遞的效率，往往將不屬于語篇宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)的命題處理為預(yù)設(shè)信息或背景信息（朱永生、苗興偉2000：27）。 49(22) There was nobody but ourselves in the field. When we had lain on the bank for some time without speaking I saw a man approaching from the far

33、 end of the field. I watched him lazily as I chewed one of those green stems on which girls tell fortunes. He came along by the bank slowly. (James Joyce, Dubliners)作者描述了主人公與一位饒舌的陌生人相遇的情景，因此有關(guān)主人公視覺的信息要比其它信息重要得多。在語篇的組織上，作者將不表現(xiàn)主題內(nèi)容的附屬信息通過從屬分句處理為背景信息。 50(23) There was nobody but ourselves in the field.

34、 We had lain on the bank for some time without speaking. I saw a man approaching from the far end of the field. I watched him lazily. I chewed one of those green stems. Girls tell fortunes on them. He came along by the bank slowly.51(24) (Ostrom & Cook 1988：58-59) His first volume of poems was publi

35、shed in 1827.Very few people bought copies.He successfully gained admission to West Point in the summer of 1830. He was expelled from the Academy the following spring.He became a successful magazine editor in Richmond, Virginia.The owner of the magazine in time objected to his habits.The owner fired

36、 him in 1837.Later in New York he wrote his famous poem, “The Raven.” It brought him much publicity.It failed to bring him much money. For years he struggled to become proprietor of a magazine. He hoped the magazine would make him rich.He finally became owner of the Broadway Journal.It went bankrupt in three months.52b. His first volume of poems was published in 1827, although very few people bought copies.c. Although his first volume of poems was published in 1827, very few people bought copies.1. His first volume of poems was published in 1827.2. Very few