the second language acqusition第二語言習得復(fù)習資料

DefinitionofSecondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstoasystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Acquisition習得:無意識地學會Learning學習：通過系統(tǒng)學習語法規(guī)律等學會Interlanguage中介語Selinker(1972)coinedtheterm“interlanguage”torefertothesystematicknowledgeofanL2whichisindependentofboththeselearners'L1andthetargetlanguage.Thetermhascometobeusedwithdifferentbutrelatedmeanings:(1)torefertotheseriesofinterlockingsystemswhichcharacterizeacquisition.(2)torefertothesystemthatisobservedatasinglestageofdevelopment.(“interlanguage”),and(3)torefertoparticularL1/L2combination(forexample,L1French/L2Englishv.L1Japanese/L2English).Othertermsthatrefertothesamebasicideaare“approximativesystem”and“transitionalcompetence”.定義：中介語：中介語理論假設(shè)第二語言學習者有一個自行創(chuàng)造的獨特的語言系統(tǒng)，介乎學習者的母語和目的語之間，并隨學習的進展逐漸向目的語靠攏。因為游離于母語和目的語之間，中介語自然包含許多錯誤。E.g.Ilostmyroad.Ilostmyway.特征：Fossilization(石化現(xiàn)象)：Itreferstothephenomenonthatincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.石化現(xiàn)象是中介語的重要特征E.g.Allstudentsarenothere不是所有的學生都在這里Noneofthestudentishere.所有的學生都不在這里FossilizationSelinker(1972)notedthatmostL2learnersfailtoreachtarget-languagecompetence.Thatis,theystoplearningwhiletheirinternalizedrulesystemcontainsrulesdifferentfromthoseoftargetsystem.Thisisreferredtoas“fossilization”.Itreflectstheoperationofvariousinternalprocesses.一、、ConceptsofSecondlanguageacquisition：1．Objectives：①Competencevsperformance②L1vs.L2vs.FL③Acquisitionvs.learning④Inputvs.output⑤Interlanguage中介語⑥Variability⑦Fossilization(石化現(xiàn)象)⑧Languagetransfer遷移2.Competencevs.PerformanceChomsky(1957)madehisfamousdistinguishbetweenCompetenceandPerformanceCompetence：anidealspeaker'sknowledgeofhislanguagesmanifestedinhisabilitytouse

thelanguage.Sound,form,meaning:Performance:thespecificutterances,includinggrammaticalmistakesandnon-linguisticfeaturessuchashesitations,etc.CompetenceandperformanceinlanguagelearningWhatisacquiredorlearnedofthetwo?Inlanguagelearning,whatdoesthedistinctiontellus?(result,process,evaluation)Firstlanguagevs.Secondlanguagevs.FL1．WhatisFirstlanguage(L1)?L1,withothernames:nativelanguage(NL),mothertongue,primarylanguage.Firstlanguageorsecondlanguageindicatestheorderorsequenceoflanguagelearning.Whatissecondlanguage(L2)?ThelanguageonelearnsafterhisnativelanguageorL1.“Second”canmeananylanguageonelearnthatissubsequenttohisL1.TwosensesofL2A:thelanguageonelearnsafterhisnativelanguage,onelearnsthelanguageinthetargetlanguage(TL)languageenvironment.(narrowsense)Example:AChineselearnsEnglishinUSorUK.AnAmericanlearnsChineseinChina.B:Anylanguagethatonelearnsotherthanhisnativetongue.(broadsense)Example:WearelearningEnglishinChina.ForeignLanguage(FL)Thelanguagethatonelearnsotherthanhisfirstlanguage,butnotinthetargetlanguageenvironment.LearningEnglishnotintheEnglish-spokencountries.DifferencesbetweenFLandL2FLL2AComparisonbetweenL1andL2acquisitionSpeedStagesErrorcorrectionDepthofknowledgeSuccessLevelofattainmentAcquisitionvs.LearningWhatisacquisition?ThedistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearningwasmadebyS.Krashen,thefamousAmericanappliedlinguistinhis“MonitorTheory”.HedefinedtwotypesofmodesoflearninginadultL2learning.Acquisitionthesubconsciouslearningprocessinthenaturallanguageenvironmentthatisnotinfluencedbyexplicitinstructioninasecondlanguage^srulesandsystemorabouterrors.Learning:isaconsciousprocessoflanguagedevelopmentthatistheresultofintendedandexplicitinstructioninasecondlanguage'srolesandsystemorabouterrorsinaartificialenvironmentsuchasaformallanguageclassroom.AcomparisonbetweenLearningandacquisitionAcquisitionLearningImplicit,subconsciousExplicit,consciousInformalsituationsFormalsituationsUsesgrammatical“feelUsesgrammaticalrulesDependsonattitudeDependsonaptitudeStableorderofacquisitionSimpletocomplexorderoflearning6.InputandOutputWhatisinputandoutput?Generally,inputreferstothechannels(process)thatlearnersacquireinformationoflanguageinlearningoracquisition:listeningandreading;Outputreferstothechannelsandprocessresults)thatlearnersproducelanguage,includingspeakingandwriting.KindsofInputAuthenticinput:Nativespeakerinput,nomodificationModifiedinputNativespeakerinput,nomodificationInterlanguageinputTeachertalk,peerstalkLinguisticadjustmentstoNon-NativeSpeakers(NNS)“foreignertalk”(Ferguson,1975)well-formedbutmodified.Featureslower,morecarefulpronunciation,stressonkeywords(VOAspecialEnglish)shortergrammarstructuresgrammaticalrelationsmadeexplicitlesssyntacticorpropositionalcomplexityrestrictedvocabularysizefewerproformsComprehensibleinputStephenKrashen(1981)heldthatlearnersacquireanL2byhearingandunderstandingmessagesthatareslightlyabovetheircurrentlanguageL2level.Thistypeofinputiscalledcomprehensibleinput(namely,“i+1”)Essentially,comprehensibleinputisthatbitoflanguagethatisheard/readandthatisslightlyaheadofalearner'scurrentstateofgrammaticalknowledge.Languagecontainingstructuresalearneralreadyknowsessentiallyservesnopurposeinacquisition.Similarly,languagecontainingstructuresaheadofalearner'scurrentknowledgeisnotuseful.Alearnerdoesnothavetheabilityto“do”anythingwiththosestructures.Krashendefinedalearner'scurrentstateofknowledgeasiandthenextstageasi+1.Thustheinputalearnerisexposedtomustbeatthei+1levelinorderforittobeofuseintermsofacquisition.“Wemovefromi,ourcurrentleveltoi+1,thenextlevelalongthenaturalorder,byunderstandinginputcontainingi+1”(1985,p.2).Theteacher'smainrole,then,istoensurethatstudentsreceivecomprehensibleinput.ComprehensibleoutputManyresearchersbelievethatInputaloneisnotsufficientforacquisition,becausewhenonehearslanguageonecanofteninterpretthemeaningwithouttheuseofsyntax.Input —output(whatisinbetween?)IntakeisverynecessaryforSecondlanguagelearnersalsoneedcomprehensibleoutput:chancestopracticetheirlanguage.Thispracticeiscalledcomprehensibleoutput.Cooperativelearningisoneeffectivewaytodoso.Comprehensibleoutputreferstotheneedforalearnertobe“pushedtowardthedeliveryofamessagethatisnotonlyconveyed,butthatisconveyedprecisely,coherently,andappropriately”(Swain,1985,p.249).Output,thus,wouldseemtohaveapotentiallysignificantroleinthedevelopmentofsyntaxandmorphology”(Swain,1995,p.128).可理解輸入的三個功能：注意/觸發(fā)功能(noticing)。忽視問題、識別問題并對相關(guān)輸入予以注意、注意特定的輸入加工，尋找解決辦法假設(shè)驗證功能(hypothesis-testing)。L2學習是一個不斷對目標做出假設(shè)并不斷驗證的過程。元語言功能(metalanguage)。琢磨、分析語言所得出的關(guān)于語言的形式、結(jié)構(gòu)和其它方面的知識教元語言。當學習者反思其目標語用法時，輸出就起元語言的功能。7.Interlanguage(IL)Definition:inter+languageLarrySelinker(1972)coinedtheterminterlanguageisanemerginglinguisticssystemthathasbeendevelopedbyalearnerofasecondlanguagewhohasnotbecomefullyproficientyet,butisonlyapproximatingthetargetlanguage.AnILisidiosyncraticalybasedonthelearners'experienceswiththesecondlanguage.TheterminterlanguagewasfirstusedbySelinker(1972).Varioustermshavebeenusedforthesamething:Nemser(1971):approximativesystemsCorder(1971):idiosyncraticdialects,transitionalcompetence.8.TransferDefinition:Transferistheinfluenceresultingfromthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandanyotherlanguagethathasbeenpreviously(andperhapsimperfectly)acquired(Odlin1989:27)“一個人關(guān)于一種語言的知識對他另一種語言的知識或使用產(chǎn)生的影響”Theinfluenceofaperson'sknowledgeofonelanguageonthatperson'sknowledgeoruseofanotherlanguage.(Jarvis&Pavlenko，2008：1)。語言遷移還可以指L2向L1的遷移(反向遷移)，也稱語言磨蝕(attrition)。Classification:Transfercanbepositiveandnegative，originatefromL1orL2Positivetransfer: resultNegativetransfer:JInterlingualtransfer|Intralingualtransfersource二．ReviewingSLAbasesObjectivesofthisunitDefinitionoflanguageDifferentviewsaboutlanguageNatureoflanguagelearningUnderstandingofL1acquisitionWhatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(Wardhaugh,1977)DifferentviewsaboutlanguageThosedifferentviewsaboutlanguagehelptogivedifferentdefinitionoflanguage.Itmightbesafetosaythatdifferentviewsoflinguistscanbethereflectionofthenatureoflanguageitself.TheprimitiveviewslanguageisanorganismlanguageiswritinglanguageisconventionalThestructuralismviewLanguageisspeechLanguageisastructuralsystemLanguageisanarbitrarysystemThefunctionalistviewTheinstrumentalfunctionTheinteractionalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionTheother(page14)ThenatureofLearningLearningexplainedbyLongmanDictionary:“acquiringorgettingofknowledgeofasubjectorskill,bystudy,experience,orinstruction”.Kimble&Garmezy(1963)“Learningisarelativelypermanentchangeinabehavioraltendencyandistheresultofreinforcedpractice”Brown(1994)defineslearningmoreprecisely:acquisitionorgettingretentionofknowledge,information,orskillstoragesystems,memory,andcognitionactive,consciousfocusonandactinguponeventsoutsideorinsidetheorganismrelativelypermanent,butsubjecttoforgettinginvolvessomeformofpracticelearningisachangeofbehaviorReber(1967)classifiedtwotypesoflearning:Explicitlearning ExplicitknowledgeImplicitlearning Tacit(implicit)knowledgeAndthus,twokindsofknowledge:ExplicitknowledgeandtacitknowledgeTheoriesinL1AcquisitionBehavioristlearningtheory(行為主義)(popularinthe1950sand60s)TheNativistapproach(內(nèi)在論)TheCognitiveapproach(認知論)TheFunctionalapproach(功能觀)4.1Behavioristlearningtheory(popularinthe1950sand60s)B.F.Skinner,WatsonViewpoint:Languagelearningisakindofbehaviorsimilartootherhumanbehavior.Languageislearntinmuchthesamewayasanythingelseislearnt.都是經(jīng)過刺激一反應(yīng)而逐漸形成習慣的結(jié)果stimulus一organism一response(((input thelearnerimitatione.g.‘Thisisapencil一‘Thisisapencil'.fourstepsforachildtoacquirehis/herL1:Imitation一reinforcement一repetition一habituation模仿 強化 重復(fù) 成形ThecognitiveapproachPigget,(Swiss),Vygovsky,(FormerSoviet)viewpoint:Children'slanguagedevelopmentreliesontheirunderstandingoftheworldorcognition.it'sdifferentfromthenativistapproachL1acquisitionvs.FLLphysiologicalaspectcognitiveaspectaffectiveaspectsocioculturalaspectlearningcondition三.AnalyzingLearnerlanguageContentsoflearningContrastiveAnalysisErrorAnalysisContrastiveInterlanguageAnalysisContrastiveAnalysisWhatisContrastiveanalysis？Asystematicmethodofcomparingtwoormorelanguagesorsubsystemsoflanguagesinordertodetermineboththedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetweenthem.HypothesisofcontrastiveanalysisThestrongversionItispossibletocontrastthesystemofonelanguage(thegrammar,phonologyandlexicon)withthesystemofasecondlanguageinordertopredictthedifficultieswhichaspeakerofthesecondlanguagewillhaveinlearningthefirstlanguage,andtoconstructreadingmaterialstohelpherlearnthatlanguage.theweakversionLinguistsonlyusethebestlinguisticknowledgeavailabletotemtoaccountforobserveddifficultiesinL2learning.Itdoesnotrequirethepredictionofthosedifficulties,andconversely,ofthoselearningpointsthatdonotcreateanydifficulties.Itonlytriestoexplainthosedifficulties.ProceduresofCA1Descriptionaformaldescriptionoftherelevantfeaturesofeachlanguagecompared.Selectionaselectionofsubsystemspredictedtopresentdifficultyinordertoestablishthecomparability.Comparisonandcontrasttheidentificationofareasofdifferenceandsimilarity;andPredictionidentificationofpossibleareasthatcauseerrors.ErrorAnalysisWhatisEA?Itaimstofindouthowwellthelearnersknowabouthislanguage;findouthowthelearnerslearnanL2;obtaininformationoncommondifficultiesinL2learning;ServeasanaidinteachingorinthepreparationandcompilationofteachingDefiningerrorsTillnow,thereisstillcontroversyofhowlanguageerroris.However,itisstillpossibletoprovideamoresafedefinitionoferror.Basedonmanyscholars,wecoulddefineerroras:theincorrectorinappropriateuseorcomprehensionofthetargetlanguage,whichseemstobedeviantfromwhatregardedasthenormbynativespeakersbecauseofthefactorslikelanguagedifferencesandsimilarities,languagetransfer,ignorance,forgetting,anxiety,falselearningstrategies,etc.TheNatureofErrorsTodoagoodjobinthestudyoferrors,its'essentialtounderstandwhattheerroris.Thenatureofanerrorcouldnotmerelybeaccountedforas“failureinhabit-formation”asarguedbybehavioristsor“distance”betweenlearners'UG(UniversalGrammar)andtheTL(TargetLanguage)asappealedbymentalists.Infact,errorscouldappearbecauseofvariousfactorsconcerninglanguagelearning,andthenatureofanerrorwillbedifferentaccordingly.AspectofKnowledgestudentshavetolearnmanyrulesorprinciplesofthetargetlanguagebyformalinstruction,andnaturally,thelackoftherelatedknowledgeoftargetlanguagewilldirectlyresultinerrors.Forexample,iflearnershaven'tmasteredtherulesofpassivevoiceorsubjunctivemood,it'shardforthemtorecollecttherequiredknowledgefrommemoryandtherefore,errorsareinevitable.AspectofCognitionAsamatteroffact,whererateisconcerned,thereisevidencethatolderlearnersarebetterthanyoungeronesinunderstandingthelanguage.Therefore,itisnaturaltoseethatastosomecomplexitems,youngerlearnerstendtomakeerrorseasily.Itisjustforthesamereasonthatwecouldnotexpectthelearneratthebeginningstagetomasterthe“subjunctivemood”orevenmorecomplicatedAspectofAffectionLearners'affectioninfactplaysanimportantroleinlearning,whichnoonecanignore.Negativeinfluenceonlearners'affectionwilldirectlyresultindeclineoflearninginnately,whichcouldbemanifestedinvariousaspects.Students'anxiety,self-esteem,lowermotivationaswellassomeotheraffectivefactorswillforsureleadtoerrorstosomeextentiftreatedinappropriately.HowtodealwitherrorsCollectingdescribingIdentifyingAnalyzingEvaluationCorrectionErrorTreatmentCorrectionmustbecarriedoutaccordingtothesituationdelicately.Inaneffectivecorrection,factorsliketheteacher,students,peers,etc.mustbeconsideredcomprehensively.Inall,thereareatleastthefollowingwaysforteacherstochoose:ProvidingUsefulFeedbackSelf-CorrectionPeerCorrectionDynamicTeacherCorrectionEstablishingStudents'ErrorPortfolio四.IdentifyLearnerDifferenceContentsofthischapterLearningStylesLearningStrategiesLanguageaptitudeLearningIntelligenceLearningmotivationLearningpersonalityLearningageLearningStylesDefinitionofLearningStylesLearningstylereferstothewayalearnerlikestolearn.Itisputintoactionbyspecificlearningstrategies.AccordingtoGass(2008),learningstyleisthepreferencesthatanindividualhasofobtaining,processing,andretaininginformation.Inotherwords,howdoindividualsapproachthetaskoflearning?Thetermlearningstyleisoftenusedinterchangeablywithpersonality,althoughtheformerisundoubtedlymorevariable,whereasthelatterreferstoastabletraitofanindividual.Whatarethenecessaryaspects?AccordingtoOxfordandAnderson(1995),therearesixinterrelatedaspects:Thecognitiveaspect:preferredorhabitualpatternsofmentalfunctioningTheexecutiveaspect:theextenttowhichlearnerslookfororder,organization,andclosureinmanagingthelearningprocesses.Theaffectiveaspect:attitudes,beliefs,andvaluesthatinfluencewhatthelearnerfocusonmost.TheSocialaspect:thepreferreddegreeofinvolvementwithotherpeopleinlearning.Thephysiologicalelement:involveswhatareatleastpartlybasedonsensoryandperceptualtendenciesofthelearners.Thebehavioralaspect:tendencytoactivelyseeksituationscompatiblewiththeirownlearningpreferences.TypesoflearningstylesVisuallearner:throughseeing??Visuallearnerneedtoseetheteacher'sbodylanguageandfacialexpressiontounderstandthecontent—sittinginthefrontThinkinpicturesandlearnbestfromvisualdisplays:diagrams,illustratedtextbooks,videos,flipchartsandhand-outsTakenotestogettheinformation.Audiolearner:throughlistening…Learnbestthroughverballectures,discussions,talkingthingsthrough,listeningtoothersGetmeaningthroughlisteningtotoneofvoice,pitch,speedandothernuances.Writteninformationmayhavelittlesenseuntilitisheard.Oftenbenefitfromreadingaloudandusingtaperecorder.Hands-Onlearner:throughdoing…Learnbestthroughhands-onappraoch,activeexploringthephysicalworldaroundthem.It'shardforthemtositstillforlongperiodsandmaybecomedistractedbytheirneedforactivityandexploration.Analyticvs.Global:attentivetodetailsorsummativeAnalytic:Tendtothinkandanalyze;prefercontrastiveanalysisanddiscrimination,notsensitivetosocial/affectivefactors,oftenfocusongrammarGlobal:avoidanalysis,canconversewithoutknowingallthewords,sensitivetothesocial-emotionalcontentExtrovertvsIntrovert:talkativeorsilentExtrovert:Energizedbytheoutsideworld,interaction-oriented,outgoing,broadinterests,tendtoreflectlater.Introvert:Energizedbytheinnerworld,preferconcentration;focusonthoughtsandconcepts,fewerinterests,butdeepones,reflectiveThetypicalextrovertissocial,likeparties,needstohavepeopletotalkto,anddoesnotlikestudyingbyhimself.Hecravesexcitement,takeschances,oftenstickshisneckout,andisgenerallyanimpulsiveindividual.Healwayshasareadyanswer,andgenerallylikeschanges.Thetypicalintrovert,ontheotherhand,isaquiet,retiringsortofperson,introspective,fondofbooksratherthanpeople;heisreservedanddistant,exceptwithintimatefriends.Hetendstoplanaheadanddistruststheimpulseofthemoment.Hedoesnotlikeexcitement,takesmattersofeverydaylifewithproperseriousness,andlikesawell-orderedlife.Intuitivevs.SequentialwithorwithoutdirectionsIntuitive:Lookforpossibilities,followhunchesandgobyfeelthanbeconstrainedbyguidelines.Sequential:Liketoworkinastep-by-stepmanner;followdirectionscarefully,tendtolinearandsensory-oriented.Closure-Orientedvs.Open-Oriented:inaflexibleorrigidmannerClosure:Lovetomakelistsandfollowthem;wantimmediateclosureandcontrol;lowtoleranceforambiguity,wanttoknowanswersimmediately,hardworkinganddecisive,prefertoplan,seedeadlinesashelpful.Open:Thinklearningshouldbefun,canmakeworkintoplay,makelists,butdon'tcheckoffeachitem,beflexible,spontaneous,opentochange,hightoleranceforambiguity,seedeadlineasartificialandarbitraryImpulsivevs.Reflective:aggressiveorcarefulImpulsive:processmaterialatahighspeedwithlowaccuracy,takerisksandguessesReflective:processmaterialatalowspeedbuthighfrequency,avoidrisk-takingandguessing.Fieldindependencevs.fielddependence:focusonpartorwholeFieldindependence場獨立:beabletohandlethelanguagepartsaswellasthewholewithoutbeingdistracted.Fielddependence場依賴:needcontexttofocusandunderstandsomething;takeeachlanguagepartoneatatime:cannotseethetreesfortheforest.Learnerstrategies“Givepeopleafishandyoufeedthemforaday;teachthemtofishandyoufeedthemforlife.”給人以魚，一日食魚;授人予漁，終身得魚。1.Improvelearners'leaningproficiency.Maketheirlearningmoreeffectiveandhelpthembecomesuccessfullanguagelearners.Benefittheirlife-longlearningandindependentlearning.Whatislearner'sstrategy?Thatisthespecifictechniquesusedbythelanguagelearnerinlearningandusinglanguage.DefinitionoflearningstrategiesSpecifictechniquesthatweemployindealingwithlearningalanguage.Thatis,howtoprocess,store,andretrievewhatwehavelearnedinthebrain.研究者們從不同角度、不同側(cè)重點給策略分類。Oxford將策略分為直接策略和間接策略(directandindirect)；2.O'MalleyandChamot'將策略分為原認知策略(mata-cognitivestrategies、認知策略(cognitivestrategies)和社會/情感策略(social/affectivestrategies)。直接影響學習的策略記憶策略：聯(lián)想、利用圖像和聲音、有計劃的復(fù)習、使用體態(tài)語認知策略：操練、接收和發(fā)出信息、分析和推理、為輸入和輸出構(gòu)建框架補償策略：合理猜測、擬補缺欠和不足間接影響學習的策略原認知策略：制定學習重點、計劃并安排學習、評估學習效果情感策略：克服焦慮、鼓勵自己、控制情緒社交策略：提問、與他人合作、理解他人(根據(jù)Oxford,1990)元認知策略事先計劃、選擇注意力、自我管理、自我監(jiān)控、自我評價等認知策略使用參考資料、重復(fù)、分類、推理、利用圖像、利用關(guān)鍵詞、聯(lián)想、做筆記、小結(jié)、重新組合、翻譯等(根據(jù)O'Mally&Chamot,1990)2.2ClassificationoflearningstrategiesCriteria:cognitionpatternMeta-cognitivestrategies:abouttheprocedureOrganize/planManageMonitorEvaluateCognitivestrategies:abouttheactionRepetition,resourcing,grouping,not-taking,deduction,recombination,imagery,auditoryrepresentation,keyword,contextualization,elaboration,transfer,inferencingSocio-affectivestrategiesActivitiesstudentsusedtogetmoreopportunitiestobeexposedtoandpracticetheirknowledge.(Oxford,1995)CooperationQuestionsforclarificationGoodlanguagelearningstrategiesWhataregoodlearningstrategies?Typesofgoodlearningstrategies?Activeplanningacademic/explicitlearningstrategies,socialaffectivestrategiesaffective-strategies.Howtomakestudentsbegoodstrategiesuser?(afterreadingthecontent)Goodlanguagelearner'sstrategiesandeffectivelearningaconcernforlanguageformaconcernforcommunication(functionalpractice)anactivetaskapproachanawarenessofthelearningprocessacapacitytouses