講義課件講稿japan-10history skiing

Onceuponatime,twodeities,themaleIzanagiandthefemaleIzanami,camedownfromTakamagahara(ThePlainsofHighHeaven)toawateryworldinordertocreaand.DropletsfromIzanagi’s‘spear’solidifiedintothelandnowknownasJapan.IzanamiandIzanagithenpopulatedthenewlandwithgods.OneofthesewasJapan’ssupremedeity,theSunGoddessAmaterasu(LightofHeaven),whosegreat-greatgrandsonJimmuwastoethefirstemperorofJapan,reputedlyin660SuchistheseminalcreationmythofJapan.Morecertainly,humanswerepresentinJapanatleast200,000yearsago,thoughtheearliesthumanremainsgobackonly30,000yearsorso.Tillaround ofthelastIceAgesome15,000yearsago,Japanwaslinkedtothecontinentbyanumberoflandbridges–Siberiatothenorth,KoreatothewestandprobablyChina tothesouth–soaccesswasnotdifficult.Amidundoubteddiversity,thefirstrecognisableculturetoemergewas13,000BC.TheJōmonweremostlyhunter-gatherers,withapreferenceforcoastalregions,thoughagriculturestartedtodevelopfromaround4000BCandthisbroughtaboutgreaterstabilityinsettlementandtheemergenceoflargertribalcommunities.Thepresent-dayindigenousAinupeopleofnorthernJapanareofJōmondescent.Fromaround400BCJapanwaseffectivelyinvadedbywavesofimmigrantslaterknownasYayoi(fromthesitewheretheirdistinctivereddishwheel-thrownpotterywasfirstfound).Theyfirstarrivedinthesouthwest,probablythroughtheKoreanpeninsula.Theirexactoriginsareunknown,andmaywellbediverse,buttheybroughtwiththemironandbronzetechnology,andhighlyproductivewetrice-farmingtechniques.IngeneraltheyweretallerandlessstockythantheJōmon–thoughaChinese fromthe1stcenturyADnonethelessreferstoJapan(bythisstagequiteheavilypeopledOpinionisdividedastothenatureofYayoirelationswiththeJōmon,butthelatterweregraduallydisplacedandforcedeverfurthernorth.TheYayoihadspreadtothemiddleofHonshūbythe1stcenturyAD,butNortherntheexceptionoftheAinu,present-dayJapaneseareoverwhelminglyofYayoidescent.OtherconsequencesoftheYayoiAdventincludedgreaterintertribal/regionaltradebasedongreaterandmorediverseproductionthroughnewtechnologies.Atthesametimetherewasincreasedrivalrybetweentribal/regionalgroups,oftenoverresources,andgreatersocialstratification.Agriculture-basedfixedsettlementledtotheconsolidationofterritoryandtheestablishmentofboundaries.AccordingtoChinesesources,byofthe1stcenturyADthereweremorethanahundredkingdomsinJapan,andbythemid-3rdcenturythesewerelargelysubjecttoan‘over-queen’namedHimiko,whoseownterritorywasknownasYamatai(laterYamato).ThelocationofYamataiisdisputed,withsomescholarsfavouringnorthwest

yearsaretheoldesttheworld.anAinunameforagodoffire.

c40036HISTORY??AncientJapan:FromHunter-GathererstoDivine HISTORY ofCourtiersChina,Japanhopeditcouldalsoe

Kyūshū,butmostpreferringtheNararegion.TheChinesetreatedHimikoassovereignofallJapan–thenameYamatoeventuallybeingappliedtoJapanasawhole–andsheacknowledgedherallegiancetotheChineseemperorthroughtribute.Onherdeathin248sheissaidtohavebeenburied–alongwithahundredofthegrowingimportanceofstatus.Otherdignitarieschoseburialinsimilartombs,andsofromthispointuntiltheestablishmentofNaraasacapitalin710,thistimeisreferredtoastheKofunorYamatoperiod.TheperiodsawtheconfirmationoftheYamatoasthedominant–indeedimperial–claninJapan.Theirconsolidationofpoweroftenappearstohavebeenbynegotiationandalliancewith(orincorporationof)powerfulpotentialfoes.ThiswasapracticeJapanwastocontinuethrough wherepossible,thoughitwasless modatinginthecaseofperceivedweakerfoes.ThefirstverifiableemperorwasSuijin(diedaround318),verylikelyoftheYamatoclan,thoughsomescholarsthinkhemayhavebeenleaderofaofthe4thcenturyfromtheKoreanpeninsula.Theperiodalsosawtheadop-tionofwriting,basedonChinesebutfirstintroducedbyscholarsfromtheKoreankingdomofPaekcheinthemid-5thcentury.ScholarsfromPaekchealsointroducedBuddhismacenturylater.BuddhismwaspromotedbytheYamatorulersasameansofunificationandcontroloftheland.ThoughBuddhismoriginated itwasseenbytheJapaneseasaChinesereligion,andwasoneofanumberof‘thingsacivilisedcountry.ByemulatingChina,Japanhopeditcould easpowerful.Thedesiretolearnfromthestrongest/bestisanotherenduringJapanesecharacteristic.In604theregentPrinceShōtoku(573–620)enactedaconstitutionof17articles,withaveryChineseandindeedConfucianistflavour,esteemingharmonyandhardwork.MajorChinese-stylereformsfollowedsomedec-adeslaterin645,suchascentralisationofernment,nationalisationandallocationofland,andlawcodes.Tostrengthenitsregime,underEmperorTemmu(r673–686)theimperialfamilyinitiatedthecompilationofhistori-calworkssuchastheKojiki(RecordofOldThings,712)andNihonShoki(RecordofJapan,720),withtheaimoflegitimisingtheirpowerthroughclaimeddivinedescent.Ithadthedesiredeffect,anddespiteanumberofperilousmoments,Japancontinuestohavethelongestunbrokenmonarchiclineintheworld.EmulationofthingsChinesewasnotindiscriminate.Forexample,ChinaConfucianismcondonedtheremovalofanunvirtuousrulerfelttohavelostthe‘mandateofheaven’,butthisideawasnotpromotedinJapan.NorwastheChinesepracticeofallowingachievementofhighrankthroughexamination,fortheJapaneserulingclasspreferredbirthovermerit.NorthernJapanaside,intermsoffactorssuchaseffectiveunification,centralisedernment,socialstratification,systematicadministration,externalrecognition,legitimisationofpower,awrittenconstitutionandalegalcode,Japan,withitsestimatedfivemillionpeople,couldbesaidtohaveformedanation-statebytheearly8thcentury.c

HISTORICAL In710anintendedpermanentcapitalwasestablishedatNara(Heijō),builttoaChinesegridpattern.TheinfluenceofBuddhisminthosedaysisstillseentodayintheTōdai-ji(p403),whichhousesahugebronzeBuddhaandistheworld’slargestwoodenbuilding(andoneoftheoldest).In784EmperorKammu(r781–806)decidedtorelocatethecapital.Hisrea-includingamassivesmallpoxepidemic(735–37)thatkilledasmanyasone-thirdofthepopulation.ThecapitalwastransferredtonearbyKyoto(Heian)in794,thanathousandyears–thoughnotnecessarilyasthecentreofactualpower.Overthenextfewcenturies,courtlylifeinKyotoreachedapinnacleofrefinedartisticpursuitsandetiquette,capturedfamouslyinthenovelTheTaleofGenji,writtenbythecourt-ladyMurasakiShikibuaround1004.Itshowedaworldwherecourtiersindulgedinamusements,suchasguessingflowersbytheirscent,buildingextravagantfolliesandsparingnoexpensetoindulgeinthelatestluxury.Onthepositiveside,itwasaworldthaten-couragedaestheticsensibilities,suchasmononoaware(thebitter-sweetnessofthings)andokashisa(pleasantlysurprisingincongruity),whichweretoendurerightthroughtothepresentday.Butonthenegativeside,itwasalsoaworldincreasinglyestrangedfromtherealone.Putbluntly,itlackedmuscle.Theeffetenessofthecourtwasexacerbatedbytheweaknessoftheemperors,manipulatedovercenturiesbytheintriguesofthenotoriousandpoliticallydominantFujiwarafamily,whoeffectivelyruledthecountry.Bycontrast,whilethemajornoblesimmersedthemselvesincourtlypleasuresand/orintrigues,outintherealworldoftheprovinces,powerfulmilitaryforcesweredevelo.Theyweretypicallyledbyminornobles,oftensentoutonbehalfofcourt-basedmajornoblestocarryout‘tedious’localgubernatorialandadministrativeduties.Somewereactuallydistantim-perialfamilymembers,barredfromsuccessionclaims–apracticeknownasskilledwarriorsknownassamurai(literally‘retainer’).Mid-5th Mid-6th

bythecourt-ladyMurasakiShikibuinaround1004,iswidelyfirstnovel.

38HISTORY of HISTORY ofWarriorswasnowthemostpower-fulmaninJapan,andwastousherinamartial

Thetwomain‘shed’familiesweretheMinamoto(alsoknownasGenji)andtheTaira(Heike),whowerebasicallyenemies.In1156theywereem-ployedtoassistrivalclaimantstotheheadshipoftheFujiwarafamily,thoughthesefiguressoonfadedintothebackground,asthestruggledevelopedintoafeudbetweentheMinamotoandtheTaira.TheTairaprevailed,underKiyomori(1118–81),whobasedhimselfinthecapitaland,overthenext20yearsorso,fellpreytomanyofthevicesthatlurkedthere.In1180,followingatypicalcourtpractice,heenthronedhisowntwo-year-oldgrandson,Antoku.However,arivalclaimantrequestedthehelpoftheMinamoto,whohadregroupedunderYoritomo(1147–99)inIzu.Yoritomowasmorethanreadytoagree.BothKiyomoriandtheclaimantdiedveryshortlyafterwards,butYori-tomoandhisyoungerhalf-brotherYoshitsune(1159–89)continuedthenagainsttheTaira–a ninterruptedbyapestilenceduringtheearly1180s.By1185KyotohadfallenandtheTairahadbeenpursuedtothewesterntipofHonshū.Anavalbattleensued(atDannoura)andtheMinamotowerevictorious.Inawell-knowntragictale,Kiyomori’swidowclaspedhergrandsonAntoku(nowagedseven)andleapedwithhimintothesea,ratherthanhavehimsurrender.MinamotoYoritomowasnowthemostpowerfulmaninJapan,andwastousherinamartialage.Yoritomodidnotseekto eemperor,butrathertohavethenewemperorconferlegitimacyonhimthroughthetitleofshōgun(generalis-simo).Thiswasgrantedin1192.Similarly,heleftmanyexistingofficesandinstitutionsinplace–thoughoftenmodified–andsetuphisbaseinhishometerritoryofKamakura,ratherthanKyoto.Intheoryherepresentedmerelythemilitaryarmoftheemperor’sernment,butinpracticehewasinchargeofernmentinthebroadsense.His‘shōgunate’wasknowninJapaneseasthebakufu,meaningthetentheadquartersofafieldgeneral,thoughitwasfarfromtemporary.Asaninstitution,itwastolastalmost700years.Thesystemofernmentnowbecamefeudal,centredonalord-vassalsysteminwhichloyaltywasakeyvalue.Ittendedtobemore andmore‘familial’thanmedievalEuropeanfeudalism,particularlyinthe‘familialhierarchy’wasto eanotherenduringfeatureofJapan.themoreruthlesspowerseekerswouldnothesitatetokillfamilymemberstheysawasthreats.Yoritomohimself,seeminglyverysuspiciousbynature,killedoffsomanyofhisownfamilytherewereseriousproblemswiththeshōgunalsuccessionuponhisdeathin1199(followingafallfromhishorseinsuspiciouscircumstances).Oneofthosehehadkilledwashishalf-brotherYoshitsune,whoearnedanenduringplaceinJapaneseliteratureandlegendasthearchetypicaltragichero.Yoritomo’swidowMasako(1157–1225)wasaformidablefigure,arrangingshōgunalregentsandcontrollingtheshōgunateformuchofherremaininglife.Havingtakenreligiousvowsonherhusband’sdeath,shebecameknownShewasinstrumentalinensuringthatherownfamily,theHōjō,replaced

astheshōgunalbase,andwastoenduretillthe1330s.ItwasduringtheirshōgunacythattheMongolstwicetriedtoinvade,in1274and1281.TheMongolempirewasclosetoitspeakatthistime,underKublaiKhan(r1260–94).AfterconqueringKoreain1259hesentrequeststoJapantosubmittohim,butthesewereignored.HisexpectedfirstattackcameinNovember1274,allegedlywithsome900vesselscarryingaround40,000men–manyofthemreluctantKoreanconscripts–thoughthesefiguresmaybeexaggerated.TheylandednearHakatainnorthwestKyūshūand,despitespiritedJapanese ,madeprogressinland.However,forunclearreasons,theypresentlyretreatedtotheirships.Shortlyafterwardsaviolentstormblewupanddamagedaroundathirdofthefleet,afterwhichtheremainderreturnedtoKorea.AmoredeterminedattemptwasmadesevenyearslaterfromChina.Allegedly,Kublaiorderedtheconstructionofahugefleetof4400warshipstocarryamassiveforceof140,000men–again,questionablefigures.TheylandedoncemoreinnorthwestKyūshūinAugust1281.Onceagaintheymetspirited andhadtoretiretotheirvessels,andonceagaintheweathersoonintervened.Thistimeatyphoondestroyedhalftheirvessels–manyofwhichwereactuallydesignedforriveruse,withoutkeels,andunabletowithstandroughconditions.ThesurvivorsreturnedtoChina,andtherewerenofurtherMongolinvasionsofJapan.Itwasthetyphoonof1281inparticularthatledtotheideaofdivineinterventiontosaveJapan,withthecoiningofthetermshinpūorkamikaze(bothmeaning‘divinewind’).LaterthiscametorefertothePacificWarsuicidepilotswho,saidtobeinfusedwithdivinespirit,gavetheirlivesinthecauseofprotectingJapanfrominvasion.ItalsoledtheJapanesetofeelthattheirlandwasindeedtheLandoftheGods.tomakeanumberofpromisedpaymentstothewarriorfamiliesinvolved,whichbroughtconsiderabledissatisfaction,whilethepaymentsitdidmakeseverelydepleteditsfinances.ItwasalsoduringtheHōjōshōgunacythatZenBuddhismwasbroughtfromChina.Itsausterityandself-disciplineappealedgreatlytothewarriorclass,anditwasalsoafactorintheappealofaestheticvaluessuchassabi(elegantsimplicity).MorepopularformsofBuddhismweretheJōdo(PureLand)andJōdoShin(TruePureLand)sects,basedonsalvationthroughinvocationofAmidaBuddha.DissatisfactiontowardstheHōjōshōgunatecametoaheadundertheunusuallyassertiveemperorGo-Daigo(1288–1339),who,afterescafromexileimposedbytheHōjō,startedtomusteranti-shōgunalsupportinWesternHonshū.In1333theshōgunatedespatchedtroopstocountertherebellionunderoneofitsmostpromisinggenerals,theyoungAshikagaTakauji(1305–58).However,Takaujiwasawareofthedissatisfactionto-wardstheHōjōandrealisedthatheandGo-Daigohadconsiderablemilitarystrengthbetweenthem.Heabandonedtheshōgunateandthrewinhislotwiththeemperor,attackingtheshōgunalofficesinKyoto.OtherssoonrebelledagainsttheshōgunateinKamakuraitself.Thiswas tion.Takaujiwantedthetitleofshōgunforhimself,buthisallyGo-Daigo

asearlyasthe13thwhich,iftrue,wouldmaritimedisaster.Early7th

9th–12th

remainsthereforoverathousandyears.

40HISTORY?? HISTORY??Stability&Seclusion‘Inparticu-lar,hehatedwhomhesawas

wasreluctanttoconferit,fearingitwouldweakenhisownimperialpower.Ariftdeveloped,andGo-DaigosentforcestoattackTakauji.WhenTakaujiemergedvictorious,heturnedonKyoto,forcingGo-DaigotofleeintothehillsofYoshinosome100kmsouthofthecity,wherehesetupacourtinexile.InKyoto,Takaujiinstalledapuppetemperorfromarivallinewhoreturnedthefavourbydeclaringhimshōgunin1338.Thusthereweretwo(atYoshino)wasbetrayedbyAshikagaYoshimitsu(1358–1408),Takauji’sgrandsonandthirdAshikagashogun,whopromisedreconciliationbutverysoon‘closedout’thesoutherncourt.TakaujisetuphisshōgunalbaseinKyoto,atMuromachi,whichgivesitsnametotheperiodoftheAshikagashōgunate.NotableshōgunsincludeTakaujihimselfandhisgrandsonYoshimitsu,whoamongotherthingshadKyoto’sfamousKinkaku-ji(GoldenTemple;p343)built,andoncedeclaredrelativelyweak.Intheabsenceofstrongcentralised ernmentandcon-trol,thecountryslippedincreasinglyintocivilwar.Regionalwarlords,whocametobeknownasdaimyō(bignames),viedwitheachotherinseeminglyinterminablefeudsandpowerstruggles.Eventually,startingwiththeōninWarof1467–77,thecountryenteredaperiodofvirtuallyconstantcivilwar.Thiswastolastforthenexthundredyears,atimeappropriayknownastheSengoku(WarringStates)era.Ironicallyperhaps,itwasduringtheMuromachiperiodthatanewishingoftheartstookplace,suchasintherefinednōdrama,ikebana(flowerarranging)andcha-no-yu(teaceremony).Keyaestheticswereyūgen(elegantandtranquilotherworldliness,asseeninnō),wabi(subduedtaste),kare(se-vereandunadorned)andtheearlier-mentionedsabi(elegantsimplicity).ThelaterstagesoftheperiodalsosawthefirstarrivalofEuropeans,specifi-callythreePortuguesetradersblownashoreontheislandofTanegashima,southofKyūshū,in1543.PresentlyotherEuropeansarrived,bringingwiththemtwoimportantitems,Christianityandfirearms(mostlyarquebuses).Theyfoundalandtornapartbywarfare,ripeforconversiontoChristianity–atleastintheeyesofmissionariessuchas(St)FrancisXavier,whoarrivedin1549–whiletheJapanesewarlordsweremoreinterestedintheworldlymatteroffirearms.OneofthemostsuccessfulwarlordstomakeuseoffirearmswasOdaNobu-naga(1534–82),fromwhatisnowAichiPrefecture.Thoughstartingfromarelativelyminorpowerbase,hisskilledandruthlessgeneralshipresultedinaseriesofvictoriesoverrivals.In1568heseizedKyotoinsupportoftheshōgunalclaimofoneoftheAshikagaclan(Yoshiaki),dulyinstalledhim,butthenin1573drovehimoutandmadehisownbaseatAzuchi.Thoughhedidnottakethetitleofshōgunhimself,Nobunagawasthesupremepowerintheland.Notedforhis ,hewasnotamantocross.InparticularhehatedBuddhistpriests,whomhesawastroublesome,andtoleratedChristianityasacounterbalancetothem.Hisegowasmassive,leadinghimtoerectatemplewherehecouldbeworshipped,andtodeclarehisbirthdayanationalholiday.HisstatedaimwasTenkaFubu(AUnifiedRealmunderMilitary

Rule)andhewentsomewaytoachievingthisunificationbypoliciessuchasstrategicredistributionofterritoriesamongthedaimyō,landsurveys,andstandardisationofweightsandmeasures.In1582hewasbetrayedbyoneofhisgeneralsandforcedtocommitsuicide.However,theworkofcontinuingunificationwascarriedonbyanotherofhisgenerals,ToyotomiHideyoshi(1536–98),afootsoldierwhohadrisenthroughtheranksto anextraordinaryfigure.Smallandsimianinhisfeatures,NobunagahadnicknamedhimSaru-chan(LittleMonkey),buthishugewillforpowerbeliedhisphysicalsmallness.HedisposedofpotentialrivalsamongNobunaga’ssons,tookthetitleofregent,continuedNobunaga’spolicyofterritorialredistributionandalsoinsistedthatdaimyōshouldsurrendertheirfamiliestohimashostagestobekeptinKyoto–hisbasebeingatMomoyama.Healsobannedweaponsforallclassesexceptsamurai.Hideyoshibecameincreasinglyparanoid,cruelandmegalomaniacalhislateryears.Messengerswhogavehimbadnewswouldbesawninhalf,andyoungmembersofhisownfamilyexecutedfor edplotting.HealsoissuedthefirstexpulsionorderofChristians(1587),whomhe ofbeinganadvanceguardforaninvasion.Thisorderwasnotnecessarilyenforced,butin1597hecrucified26Christians–nineofthemEuropean.Hisgrandschemeforpowerincludedapan-Asianconquest,andasafirststepheattemptedaninvasionofKoreain1592,whichfailedamidmuchbloodshed.Hetriedagainin1597,butthe nwasabandonedwhenhediedofillnessin1598.OnhisdeathbedHideyoshientrustedthesafeguardingofthecountry,andthesuccessionofhisyoungsonHideyori(1593–1615),whomhehadunex-pectedlyfatheredlateinlife,tooneofhisablestgenerals,TokugawaIeyasu1600,intheBattleofSekigahara,hedefeatedthosewhoweretryingtoprotectHideyori,andbecameeffectivelytheoverlordofJapan.In1603hispowerwaslegitimisedwhentheemperorconferredonhimthetitleofshōgun.Hisnowbecametherealcentreofpowerand ernmentinJapan.Throughthesethreemen,byfairmeansormorecommonlyfoul,countryhadbeenreunifiedwithinthreeHavingsecuredpowerfortheTokugawa,Ieyasuandhissuccessorsweredeterminedtoretainit.Theirbasicstrategywasofalinkedtwo-foldnature:enforcethestatusquoandminimisepotentialforchallenge.Orthodoxyandstrictcontrol(overmilitaryfamiliesinparticular)werekeyelements.Policiesincludedrequiringauthorisationforcastlebuildingandmarriages,continuingstrategicredistribution(orconfiscation)ofterritory,and,impor-tantly,requiringdaimyōandtheirretainerstospendeverysecondyearatEdo,withtheirfamilieskepttherepermanentlyashostages.Inadditiontheshōgunatedirectlycontrolledports,mines,majortownsandotherstrategicareas.Movementwasseverelyrestrictedbydeliberatedestructionofmanybridges,theimplementationofcheckpointsandrequirementsforwrittentravelauthority,thebanningofwheeledtransport,thestrictmonitoringofpotentiallyocean-goingvessels,andthebanningofoverseastravelfor1274&

cruelandniacalinhislateryears’prevailsunderYoritomo.

Ashikagashōgunate.42HISTORY??Stability& HISTORY??ModernisationThrough ‘Afterkillingthemanble,theyinturnwereallobligedtocommit

Japaneseandeventhereturnofthosealreadyoverseas.Socialmovementwasalsobanned,withsocietydividedintofourmainclasses:indescendingorder,shi(samurai),nō(farmers),kō(artisans)andshō(merchants).Detailedcodesofconductappliedtoeachoftheseclasses,evendowntoclothingandfoodandhousing–rightdowntothesitingofthetoilet!Christianity,thoughnotgreatlypopular,threatenedtheauthorityoftheshōgunate.ThusChristianmissionarieswereexpelledin1614.In1638thebloodyquellingoftheChristian-ledShimabaraUprising(nearNagasaki)sawChristianitybannedandJapaneseChristians–probablyseveralhundredthousand–forcedintohiding.AllWesternersexceptthe antDutchwereexpelled.Theshōgunatefound antismlessthreateningthanCatholicism–amongotherthingsitknewtheVaticancouldmusteroneofthebiggestmilitaryforcesintheworld–andwouldhavebeenpreparedtolettheBritishstayoniftheDutch,showingastutecommercialone-upmanship,hadnotconvinceditthatBritainwasaCatholiccountry.Nevertheless,theDutchwereconfinedgeographicallytoatinytradingbaseontheman-madeislandofDejima,nearNagasaki,andnumericallytojustafewdozenmen.ThusJapanenteredaneraofsakoku(secludedcountry)thatwastolastformorethantwocenturies.WithintheisolatedandseverelyprescribedworldofTokugawaJapan,thebreachofevenatriviallawcouldmeanexecution.crucifixion,andcouldbemetedoutcollectivelyorbyproxy(forexample,avillageheadmancouldbepunishedforthemisdeedofavillager).wereusedtoreportonAsaresult,peopleatlargelearnedtheimportanceofobediencetoauthor-ity,ofcollectiveresponsibilityandof‘ngtherightthing’.Thesearevaluesstillprominentinpresent-dayJapan.Foralltheconstraintstherewasneverthelessaconsiderabledynamismtotheperiod,especiallyamongthemerchants,whoasthelowestclasswereoftenignoredbytheauthoritiesandthushadrelativefreedom.TheyprosperedgreatlyfromtheservicesandgoodsrequiredforthedaimyōprocessionstoandfromEdo,entailingsuchexpensethatdaimyōh(huán)adtoconvertmuchof alproduceintocash.Thisboostedtheeconomyingeneral.Alargelypleasure-orientedmerchantculturethrived,andproducedthepopularkabukidrama,withitscolourandstageeffects.Otherentertainmentsincludedbunraku(puppettheatre),haiku(17-syllableverses),popularnovelsandukiyoe(wood-blockprints),oftenoffemalegeisha,whocametotheforeinthisperiod.(Earliergeisha–meaning‘a(chǎn)rtistic’–weremale.)Samurai,fortheirpart,hadnomajormilitaryengagements.Welledu-cated,mostendedupfightingmerepaperwarsasadministratorsandmanagers.Ironically,itwasduringthisperiodofrelativeinactivitythattherenownedsamuraicodeofbushidōwasformalised,largelytojustifytheexistenceofthesamuraiclass–some6%ofthepopulation–byportrayingthemasmoralexemplars.Thoughmuchofitwasidealism,occasionallythecodewasputintopractice,suchastheexemplaryloyaltyshownbytheForty-Sevenrōnin(masterlesssamurai)in1701–03,whowaitedtwoyearstoavengetheunfairenforcedsuicidebyseppuku(disembowelment)oftheirlord.Afterkillingthemanresponsible,theyinturnwereallobligedtocommitseppuku.

Inmoregeneralterms,Confucianismwasofficiallyencouragedwiththeapparentaimofreinforcingtheideaofhierarchyandstatusquo.Thoughthiswasclearlynotinthebestinterestsofwomen,itencouragedlearning,andalongwiththis,literacy.By oftheperiodasmanyas30%ofthepopulationof30millionwereliterate–faraheadoftheWesternnormatthetime.Insomeoppositiontothe‘Chineselearning’representedbyConfu-cianism,therewasalsoastrongtrendofnationalism,centredonShintōandtheancienttexts.Thiswasunhelpfultotheshōgunateasittendedtofocusontheprimacyoftheemperor.Certainly,bytheearly-mid-19thcentury,therewasconsiderabledissatisfactiontowardstheshōgunate,fannedalsobycorruptionandpetenceamongshōgunalofficials.ItisquestionablehowmuchlongertheTokugawashōgunateanditssecludedworldcouldhavecontinued,butasithappened,externalforcesweretobringaboutitsdemise.Sincethestartofthe19thcenturyanumberofWesternvesselshadappearedinJapanesewaters.AnyWesternerswhodaredtoland,eventhroughship-wreck,werealmostalwaysmetwithexpulsionorevenexecution.ThiswasnotacceptabletotheWesternpowers,especiallytheUSA,whichwaskeentoexpanditsinterestsacrossthePacificandhadnumerouswhalingvesselsinthenorthwestthatneededregularreprovisioning.In1853,andagainthefollowingyear,USCommodoreMatthewPerryedintoEdoBaywithashowofgunshipsanddemandedtheopeningofJapanfortradeandreprovisioning.Theshōgunatehadlittleoptionbuttoaccedetohisdemands,foritwasnomatchforPerry’sfirepower.PresentlyaUSconsularrived,andnation’rightstoallthepowers,andlostcontroloveritsowntariffs.tor,wascapitaliseduponbyanti-shōgunalsamuraiintheouter sofjōi).However,afterunsuccessfulskirmishingwiththeWesternpowers,thereformersrealisedthatexpellingthebarbarianswasnotfeasible,butrestor-ingtheemperorwas.Theircoup,knownastheMeiji(EnlightenedRule)Restoration,wasputintoeffectfromlate1867toearly1868,andthenewteenageemperorMutsuhito(1852–1912),latertobeknownasMeiji,foundhimself‘restored’,followingtheconvenientdeathofhisstubbornfatherKōmei(1831–67).Aftersomeinitial ,thelastshōgun,Yoshinobu(1837–1913),retiredtoShizuokatoliveouthisnumerousremainingyearspeacefully.TheshōgunalbaseatEdobecamethenewimperialbase,andwasrenamedTōkyō(easterncapital).Mutsuhitodidashewastoldbythosewhohadrestoredhim,though