EquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy國際經(jīng)貿(mào)高級課件

TEXTGrowingInequality

Thedegreeofincomeinequalityvariesgreatlyfromregiontoregion.ItisgreatestinLatinAmericaandsub-SaharanAfrica,andlowestinEasternEurope;otherregionsfallbetweenthesetwoextremes.InLatinAmerica,theaverageGinicoefficient—themostcommonlyusedmeasureofinequality,with0representingperfectequalityand1representingtotalinequality—isalmost0.5.TheaverageGinicoefficientinsub-SaharanAfricaisslightlylower,butthereisconsiderablevariationamongcountries.IncomeinequalityhasaregionaldimensioninbothAfricaandLatinAmerica—averageincomesaresignificantlyhigherinurbanareasthaninruralareas.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?TEXTUnitNine

ShouldEquityBe1UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Inrecentyears,incomeinequalityhasbeenincreasinginalargenumberofcountries.Thisincreasehasbeenmoststrikinginthetransitioneconomies,wheretheaverageGinicoefficienthadbeenaround0.25untilthelate1980s;bythemid1990s,ithadrisentomorethan0.30.Whilethismaynotappeartobealargeincrease,itisquitesignificantfortheshortperiodbeingassessed.Ginicoefficientstendtoberelativelystableincountriesoverlongperiods.IncomeinequalityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrialcountriesandisbeginningtoincreaseinsomeEastAsiancountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG2UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings.Butwagestellonlypartofthestory.Thedistributionofwealth(and,byimplication,capitalincome)ismoreconcentratedthanlaborincome.InAfricaandLatinAmerica,unequalownershipoflandhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincome.Furthermore,inrecentyears,therehasbeenashiftfromlabortocapitalincome(includingincomefromselfemployment)inmanycountries.Intransitioncountries,thisshifthasbeendueprimarilytotheprivatizationofstate-ownedassets.Theanalysisoftrendsinnonlaborincomeincountrieswithwelldevelopedcapitalmarketsandpensionfundsismorecomplicated.Pensionfundsandotherfinancialinstitutionsreceiveasizableportionofcapitalincome,andtheshareofcapitalincomeintotalhouseholdincometypicallychangesoverthelifecycleoftheindividualsineachhousehold.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG3UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

IsGlobalizationtheCause?Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor,product,andcapitalmarketsofeconomiesaroundtheworld.Increasedtrade,capitalandlabormovements,andtechnologicalprogresshaveledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations.Developingcountries,withtheirabundantsupplyofunskilledlabor,haveacomparativeadvantagerelativetodevelopedcountriesintheproductionofunskilled-labor-intensivegoodsandservices.Asaresult,productionoftheseproductsindevelopedcountrieshascomeunderincreasedcompetitivepressure.Economictheorytellsusthisshouldapplydownwardpressureontherelativecompensationofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountriesandupwardpressureonthecompensationoftheircounterpartsindevelopingcountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG4UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Basedonthistheory,someauthorshaveclaimedthatglobalizationistoblameforgrowingincomeinequalityindevelopedcountries.Othersarguethatthewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandunskilledworkersinthedevelopedcountriesisduetothedevelopmentanddispersionofskill-intensivetechnologiesratherthantoincreasedtrade.Severalempiricalstudieshavetriedtogaugetherelativeimportanceofbothtradeandtechnologicalprogressinthedeclineofrelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountries.Estimatesofthecontributionofincreasedtradetothetotalincreaseofthewagedifferentialbetweenunskilledandskilledworkersrangefromnegligibleto50percent.Thislargevariationisafunctionofthestructureofproductionindevelopedcountriesandtheshareoftheirlabormarketthatisindirectcompetitionwithlow-skilledworkersindevelopingcountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG5UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

Thedebateregardingtheeffectofglobalizationonincomedistributionindevelopingcountriesmirrorsthedebateondevelopedcountries.Although,allotherthingsbeingequal,increasedopennesswouldbeexpectedtoincreasetherelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopingcountries,experiencehasbeenmixed.EvidencesuggeststhattherelativewagesofunskilledworkersincreasedinEastAsiancountriesinthe1960sand1970sbutdecreasedinLatinAmericainthe1980sandearly1990s.TherearetwopossibleexplanationsforwhywagesfellinLatinAmerica:first,theopeningupofdevelopingAsiancountries—Bangladesh,China,India,Indonesia,andPakistan—whereunskilledlaborisevenmoreabundant;second,theavailabilityofnewproductiontechnologiesthatarebiasedtowardskilledlabor.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG6UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

Theeffectglobalizationhasonincomedistributionseemstobedeterminedtosomeextentbyacountry’slevelofdevelopmentandthetechnologiesavailabletoit.Similarly,exposuretointernationalcompetitionmaychangeinstitutions(forexample,tradeunions)andtherebyaffectincomedistribution.Someobserverscontendthat,becauseofthemobilityofcapital,globalizationlimitstheabilityofunionworkerstoachievea“unionwagepremium,”thusdecreasingthebargainingpowerofworkersvis-à-viscapital.Inaddition,globalizationmayleadtosharpshort-runchangesinthedistributionofincome,asbarrierstotradearereducedandthedistributionofproductionisreallocatedamongsectors.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG7UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Itisoftenarguedthatglobalizationmakesitmoredifficultforgovernmentstoimplementequitablepolicies.Increasinglymobilecapitalandlaborhavelimitedtheabilityofgovernmentstolevytaxesandtransferincometothoseaffectedbyglobalization.Totheextentthatcapitalismoremobilethanlabor,theincidenceoftaxestofinancesafetynetsforthoseaffectedbyglobalizationisshiftedtolabor.

PolicyResponsesTheextenttowhichcountrieshavefocusedonpromotingequityandthestrategiestheyhaveadoptedvarywidely.Somecountrieshaveactivelypromotedtheuseofpublicresourcestoraisetheincomesofthoseonthebottomtieroftheincomedistribution.Othershavefocusedonthetoppercentilesbylevyinghighlyprogressivetaxes.Yetothers,concernedthatpoliciestargetingthepoormayresultineconomicinefficienciesanddistortionsthatretardgrowth,havetakenanindirectapproach,seekingtohelplowincomefamiliesbystimulatingoveralleconomicgrowth.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG8UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

InLatinAmericaduringthe1980s,theprimarygoalofpolicymakerswasachievingsustainablegrowth,andaviablebalanceofpaymentsandstructuralreformswereseenascriticaltoachievingthisgoal.Growthhasalsobeenoneoftheprimarygoalsofthetransitioneconomies,buttheirstrategieshaveincludedpoliciesaimedathelpinggroupslikelytobehurtbythetransition.Suchpolicieshaveincludedthedistributionofsharesofprivatizedenterprises,theadaptationofsocialpolicyinstrumentstoprotectvulnerablegroups,andtheestablishmentofsocialsafetynets(forexample,targetedsubsidies,cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies,severancepayandretrainingforretrenchedpublicsectoremployees,andpublicworksprograms).However,thelackofbudgetaryresourceshasmadeimplementationofthesepoliciesdifficult.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG9UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Fiscalpolicy—taxationandspending—isagovernment’smostdirecttoolforredistributingincome,inboththeshortandthelongrun.However,theeffectofredistributivetaxpolicies,especiallyinthefaceofglobalization,hasbeensmall.Policymakersshouldfocusondevelopingabroadlybased,efficient,andeasilyadministeredtaxsystemwithmoderatemarginalrates.Althoughtheprimarygoalofthetaxsystemshouldbetopromoteefficiency,policymakersalsoneedtoconsiderhowtodistributetheburdenoftaxationsothesystemisseenasfairandjust.Theexpendituresideofthebudgetoffersbetteropportunitiesthanthetaxsideforredistributingincome.Thelinkbetweenincomedistributionandsocialspending—especiallyspendingonhealthandeducation,throughwhichgovernmentscaninfluencetheformationanddistributionofhumancapital—isparticularlystrong,andpublicinvestmentinthehumancapitalofthepoorcanbeanefficientwaytoreduceincomeinequalityoverthelongrun.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG10UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Theamountofresourcesgovernmentscanandshoulddevotetosocialexpendituresdependsonvariousfactors,includingthetax-to-GDPratioandtheresourcesdevotedtootherspending.Publicexpendituresshoulddisplaceprivateexpendituresonlywhentheyyieldhighersocialbenefits.Priorityshouldbegiventothemostproductivepublicexpenditures,andunproductivepublicexpenditures—forexample,excessivemilitaryspending,wagesforanover-staffedcivilservice,andbudgetarytransferstoinefficientpublicenterprises—shouldbecurtailed.Civilservicereformandtheprivatizationofservicesthatcanbebetterprovidedbytheprivatesector—especiallyifaccompaniedbyareallocationofexpenditurestothesocialsectors—arelikelytobebothgrowth-andequity-enhancing,particularlyindevelopingcountries,wherepublicsectoremployeescomeprimarilyfromthemiddle-andupper-middle-incomeclasses.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG11UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?

Outlaysonhealthandeducationcanimprovetheexistingpatternofincomedistribution,dependingtoalargeextentontheirallocationwithinsectorsandwhoreceivesthebenefits.Studiesshowthatspendingonbasichealthcareandprimaryeducationisfarmoreeffectiveinreachingthepoorthanspendingonhighereducationorhospital-basedcurativecare;theformerreducesdisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroupsandcandecreaseincomeinequalityinthelongrun(see“PublicSpendingonHumanDevelopment,”bySanjeevGupta,BenedictClements,andErwinTiongsoninthisissue).Studiesalsoshowthat,incountrieswithoutsomeformofhealthriskpooling,seriousillnessesarethesinglemostimportantfactordrivingfamiliesintopoverty.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG12UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Althoughfiscalpolicyisusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglow-incomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms,anumberofcountrieshaveintroducedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution,therationalebeingthatrelativewagesexertastronginfluenceonoverallincomeinequality.ManyEuropeancountrieshaveoptedforhighminimumwages,generousunemploymentbenefits,andawiderangeofjob-protectionmeasures.Althoughthesepoliciescanresultinrigidities,advocatesmaintainthattheyhelpachieveasociallydesirableredistributionofincome,whileopponentsarguethattheydiscouragenewinvestmentanddampenjobcreationandgrowth.TheUnitedStates,whichhasoptedformoreflexiblelabormarkets,hasachievedhighemploymentlevels,butthecostmaybegreaterincomeinequality.Tomitigatethepotentialeffectofmarketflexibilityonlow-wageworkers,theUnitedStateshasintroducedwagesubsidiesthatUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG13UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?simultaneouslyredistributeincomeandpromoteemployment.Giventhepotentiallylargeimpactoflabormarketpoliciesonearnings,thesecompetingvisionsofthelabormarketarecentraltothedebateoverincomeinequalityinmanydevelopingandnewlyindustrializedcountries.Governmentscanalsoindirectlyaffectincomelevelsanddistributionthroughmonetarypolicyandtheiroverallmacroeconomicstance.Forexample,highinflationtendstocurtaileconomicgrowthandincreaseincomeinequality.Tradeliberalization—especiallywhenitoccursindevelopingcountriesthathavehadrestrictivetradepolicies,suchastaxationofagriculturalexportsandprotectivetariffsonimports—mayboosteconomicgrowthandleadtomoreequitableconditions.Currencydevaluationsmayalsohaveimplicationsforequity,particularlyinlow-incomecountries,wherethepoorareoftenconcentratedintheagriculture-intensiveexportsectorandmiddle-andupper-incomeurbandwellerstendtobemoredependentonimports.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG14UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes—suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty—oronensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities.Inextremecasesofincomeinequality,outcomesareclearlycritical.Inothercases,settingupalevelplayingfieldmaybeallthatisnecessary,andgreateremphasiscanbeplacedonpoliciesthatfacilitatemobilitybetweenincomeclassesandonensuringthatincomeandwealthareacquiredjustlyandfairly.Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunityincludederegulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrong,accountableinstitutions,includingawell-functioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices(curbingcorruptioncandirectlyreduceincomeinequality,becausethegainsfromcorruptpracticestendtobecapturedbythewell-to-do);andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG15UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Governmentsseekingtoimplementequity-orientedpoliciesfaceanumberofobstacles.Firstandforemostisthefinancingrequired:highlevelsofspendingontargetedprogramsmaynotbeconsistentwithasustainablemacroeconomicframework.Second,governmentsinmanydevelopingcountries,wherealargeshareofthepopulationisengagedinruralandinformalsectoractivities,maybeunabletoreachthemostvulnerablegroups.Theruralandinformalsectorsmayhavelimitedinteractionwithformalsectorinstitutions,includingthegovernment,makingthedeliveryofgovernmentassistance(forexample,cashtransfers)problematic.Inasimilarvein,alackofadministrativecapacitymayhamperredistributiveefforts;forexample,taxevasionisasevereproblemincountrieswithweaktaxadministration,makingitdifficultforgovernmentstousethetaxsystemasavehicletofinanceredistributivepolicies.Politicalconstraints—low-incomegroupstypicallyhavelesspoliticalpowerthanotherUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG16UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?interestgroups—mayimpedeeffortstoreallocatespendingtowardthepoororredistributelandorotherassetstothem.Legalimpedimentsmayalsopreventgovernmentsfromtakingmeasurestopromoteequity—forexample,constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingmaylimittheamountofresourcesacentralgovernmentcanallocatetoredistributivepolicies.(excerptedfromFinance&Development,September1998)UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG17UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?ExercisesⅠ.TranslatethefollowingintoEnglish,usingthewordsorphrasesinthetext:1.衡量收入分配的最常用的指標themostcommonlyusedmeasuresofincomedistribution2.從勞動力市場向資本市場的轉(zhuǎn)移theshiftfromlabourtocapitalmarkets3.生產(chǎn)專業(yè)化和專業(yè)化生產(chǎn)過程的擴散specializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessesUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG18UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?4.熟練工與非熟練工之間日益拉大的工資差距5.偏向于技術(shù)勞動力的新生產(chǎn)技術(shù)newproductiontechniquesbiasedtowardskilledlabor6.阻礙增長的經(jīng)濟無效率和扭曲economicinefficiencyanddistortionsretardinggrowth7.可持續(xù)增長和可行的收支政策sustainablegrowthandaviablebalance-of-paymentspolicythewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandthoseofunskilledworkersUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG19UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?8.具有廣泛基礎(chǔ)的、有效而易于管理的稅收體系9.減少不同收入集團人力資本的明顯差異reducedisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroups10.與宏觀經(jīng)濟規(guī)劃相一致的既定項目targetedprogramsconsistentwiththemacroeconomicframework11.關(guān)于財政收入分配的憲法原則constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingabroadly-based,efficientandeasilyadministeredtaxsystemUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG20UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?12.通過解除經(jīng)濟的規(guī)定管制來促進機會平等13.取代津貼的現(xiàn)金補償cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies14.刺激公共資源利用和整體經(jīng)濟增長stimulatetheuseofpublicresourcesandtheoveralleconomicgrowth15.采取有效措施促進就業(yè)和公平takeeffectivemeasurestopromoteemploymentandequitytopromoteequalityofopportunitiesthroughderegulatingeconomyUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG21UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Ⅱ.TranslatethefollowingsentencesintoEnglish:1.關(guān)于收入分配的大部分辯論集中在工資收入上，它被認為是整體收入分配的一個重要因素。但在非洲和拉丁美洲，不平等的土地所有權(quán)是一個不可忽略的因素。(centeron)

Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings,whichhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincomes.ButinAfricaandLatinAmerica,unequalownershipoflandisafactorthatcannotbeignored.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG22UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?2.全球化將全世界各經(jīng)濟體的勞動力、產(chǎn)品和資本市場連接起來，并間接導致生產(chǎn)專業(yè)化和專業(yè)化生產(chǎn)過程向地理位置遙遠地區(qū)擴散。(dispersion)

Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor,productandcapitalmarketsoftheeconomiesaroundtheworldandhasindirectlyledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG23UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?3.盡管財政政策被視為幫助低收入人群和受改革計劃影響的人們的主要工具，許多國家采取了具體的勞動力市場政策來試圖影響收入分配。(inaneffortto)

Althoughfiscalpoliciesareusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglowincomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms,quiteanumberofcountrieshaveadoptedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG24UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?4.政府所能采取的促進機會均等的措施包括：取消對經(jīng)濟的規(guī)定管制；建立包括運作良好的司法體系在內(nèi)的強有力的，負責任的機構(gòu)；減少腐敗行為的機會；提供獲得健康和教育服務的充足機會等。(deregulate)Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunitiesincludederegulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrongandresponsibleinstitutions,includingawellfunctioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices;andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG25UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?5.另一個重要問題是政府是否應該關(guān)注結(jié)果，比如減少貧困人數(shù)，或保證每個人都有公平的機會。(ensure)

Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes—suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty,orensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG26UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Ⅲ.PutthefollowingpassageintoEnglish:有一種關(guān)于財富分配的理論表明，不合理的分配和腐敗是造成收入水平不公的主要原因。這一理論認為，財富要經(jīng)歷4個分配階段——市場、政府、非政府組織、以及主要表現(xiàn)為腐敗的非法活動。通常第一個分配階段——市場——會導致資源分布不均，而這應該由第二個分配階段，即政府，來糾正。在第三個階段，財富的分配是通過非政府部門的捐贈來實現(xiàn)的。捐款是以慈善活動的形式贈予窮人的。接著便是對財富的非法掠奪，如搶劫、貪污、逃稅和賄賂。這些對社會的公平和穩(wěn)定所造成的傷害是巨大的，而且是無法測量的。UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG27UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Onetheoryonwealthdistributionindicatesthatirrationaldistributionandcorruptionarethemajorreasonsfortheunevenincomelevel.Accordingtothistheory,wealthgoesthroughfourstagesofdistribution—themarket,thegovernment,non-governmentalorganizationsandunlawfulactivities,mainlycorruption.Usuallythefirststageofdistribution—themarket—willresultinanunevenspreadofresources,whichshouldberedressedbytheseconddistributionstage,thegovernment.Inthethirdstage,thedistributionofwealthisrealizedthroughcontributionsanddonationsmadebynon-governmentalorganizations.Thecontributionsaregiventothepoorintheformofcharityactivities.Thenfollowsillegalgrabbingofwealth,suchasrobbery,embezzlement,taxevasionandbribery.Theirharmtosocialequalityandstabilityisenormousandcan’treallybemeasured.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG28UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Exercise2.Bibliographicalcitations(a)Ramirez,A.G.(1995).Creatingcontextsforsecondlanguageacquisition.WhitePlains,NY:Longman(b)Inman,I.M.(1934).TypesofclayusedinancientAcapulcanpottery.HistoryofAppliedArchaeologyQuarterly,86,119-123.(c)Frampton,K.(1992).Modernarchitecture:Acriticalhistory.NewYork:ThamesandHudson.(d)Pearson,T.(1992).EvreinovandPirandello:Twotheatricalistsinsearchofthechiefthing.TheatreSurvey,32,130-136.Ⅳ.AnswerkeyforWritingresearchpapersUnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG29UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Exercise3.Bibliographicalcitations(errorcorrection)Thecorrectcitationformsgivenherearefollowedinbracketsbybriefexplanationsofwhatwaswrongintheoriginal.(a)Stein,H.(1995).Economicsofmytimeandyours.BusinessEconomics,30,19-21.[Noquotationmarkswithtitlearticle](b)Shimada,S.(Ed.).(1995).Coherentlightwavecommunicationstechnology.London:ChapmanandHall.[Placeofpublicationcomesbeforenameofpublisher](c)Winston,P.H.(1985).Artificialintellegence.NewYork:Wesley.[Italicizebooktitle]UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG30UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?(d)Malik,M.(1990).Changesinthedistributionofventricularectopicbeatsinlong-termelectrocardiograms.MedicalandBiologicalEngineeringandComputing,28,423-430.[Italicizevolumenumber](e)Sadie,S.(1990).Historyofopera.NewYork:Norton.[Useonlyinitialsofauthor'sfirstname](f)Haggard,A.(1985).Apatient'sbestfriend.AmericanJournalofNursing,85,1375-1376.[Dateofpublicationcomesafteranthor'snameandbeforetitle](g)Wright,S.(1995).Languageplanningandpolicy-makinginEurope.LanguageTeaching,28,148-159.[Nocapitalizationoftitle,exceptforfirstwordandpropername]UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG31樹立質(zhì)量法制觀念、提高全員質(zhì)量意識。12月-2212月-22Monday,December26,2022人生得意須盡歡，莫使金樽空對月。15:22:3115:22:3115:2212/26/20223:22:31PM安全象只弓，不拉它就松，要想保安全，常把弓弦繃。12月-2215:22:3115:22Dec-2226-Dec-22加強交通建設管理，確保工程建設質(zhì)量。15:22:3115:22:3115:22Monday,December26,2022安全在于心細，事故出在麻痹。12月-2212月-2215:22:3115:22:31December26,2022踏實肯干，努力奮斗。2022年12月26日3:22下午12月-2212月-22追求至善憑技術(shù)開拓市場，憑管理增創(chuàng)效益，憑服務樹立形象。26十二月20223:22:31下午15:22:3112月-22嚴格把控質(zhì)量關(guān)，讓生產(chǎn)更加有保障。十二月223:22下午12月-2215:22December26,2022作業(yè)標準記得牢，駕輕就熟除煩惱。2022/12/2615:22:3115:22:3126December2022好的事情馬上就會到來，一切都是最好的安排。3:22:31下午3:22下午15:22:3112月-22一馬當先，全員舉績，梅開二度，業(yè)績保底。12月-2212月-2215:2215:22:3115:22:31Dec-22牢記安全之責，善謀安全之策，力務安全之實。2022/12/2615:22:31Monday,December26,2022相信相信得力量。12月-222022/12/2615:22:3112月-22謝謝大家！樹立質(zhì)量法制觀念、提高全員質(zhì)量意識。12月-2212月-2232生活中的辛苦阻撓不了我對生活的熱愛。12月-2212月-22Monday,December26,2022人生得意須盡歡，莫使金樽空對月。15:22:3115:22:3115:2212/26/20223:22:31PM做一枚螺絲釘，那里需要那里上。12月-2215:22:3115:22Dec-2226-Dec-22日復一日的努力只為成就美好的明天。15:22:3115:22:3115:22Monday,December26,2022安全放在第一位，防微杜漸。12月-2212月-2215:22:3115:22:31December26,2022加強自身建設，增強個人的休養(yǎng)。2022年12月26日3:22下午12月-2212月-22精益求精，追求卓越，因為相信而偉大。26十二月20223:22:31下午15:22:3112月-22讓自己更加強大，更加專業(yè)，這才能讓自己更好。十二月223:22下午12月-2215:22December26,2022這些年的努力就為了得到相應的回報。2022/12/2615:22:3115:22:3126December2022科學，你是國力的靈魂；同時又是社會發(fā)展的標志。3:22:31下午3:22下午15:22:3112月-22每天都是美好的一天，新的一天開啟。12月-2212月-2215:2215:22:3115:22:31Dec-22相信命運，讓自己成長，慢慢的長大。2022/12/2615:22:31Monday,December26,2022愛情，親情，友情，讓人無法割舍。12月-222022/12/2615:22:3112月-22謝謝大家！生活中的辛苦阻撓不了我對生活的熱愛。12月-2212月-2233TEXTGrowingInequality

Thedegreeofincomeinequalityvariesgreatlyfromregiontoregion.ItisgreatestinLatinAmericaandsub-SaharanAfrica,andlowestinEasternEurope;otherregionsfallbetweenthesetwoextremes.InLatinAmerica,theaverageGinicoefficient—themostcommonlyusedmeasureofinequality,with0representingperfectequalityand1representingtotalinequality—isalmost0.5.TheaverageGinicoefficientinsub-SaharanAfricaisslightlylower,butthereisconsiderablevariationamongcountries.IncomeinequalityhasaregionaldimensioninbothAfricaandLatinAmerica—averageincomesaresignificantlyhigherinurbanareasthaninruralareas.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?TEXTUnitNine

ShouldEquityBe34UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Inrecentyears,incomeinequalityhasbeenincreasinginalargenumberofcountries.Thisincreasehasbeenmoststrikinginthetransitioneconomies,wheretheaverageGinicoefficienthadbeenaround0.25untilthelate1980s;bythemid1990s,ithadrisentomorethan0.30.Whilethismaynotappeartobealargeincrease,itisquitesignificantfortheshortperiodbeingassessed.Ginicoefficientstendtoberelativelystableincountriesoverlongperiods.IncomeinequalityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrialcountriesandisbeginningtoincreaseinsomeEastAsiancountries.UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaG35UnitNine

ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings.Butwagestellonlypartofthestor