古典時代的轉(zhuǎn)變

TheTransformationoftheClassicalEra

TheConquestbyAlexandertheGreatThepreservationoftheHellenicachievementsGreecefelljustasitculminated,yetspreadtriumphantlyjustasitsubmitted.SpreadingoftheGreekIntellectualAchievementcentersofculturallearning:Greekinheritancesurvivedandflourished.amassiveculturalfusion.Alexander’sempiredidnotholdtogether.Romeemergedasthecenterofanewempire.GreekhighcultureTheeducatedclassofthegreaterMediterraneanworldTheRomansContents1CrosscurrentsoftheHellenisticMatrixATheDeclineandPreservationoftheGreekMindBAstronomyCAstrologyDNeoplatonism2TheEmergenceofChristianityERome

A.TheDeclineandPreservationoftheGreekMindAftertheAlexander’sconquest,theHellenisticworldextendedallthewayfromthewesternMediterraneantocentralAsia.TheinitialexpansionofGreekcultureeastwardwasintimecomplementedbyastronginfluxofOrientalreligiousandpoliticalcurrentstotheWest.enrichedbythisnewinfluxaswerethenon-GreekculturesbytheHellenicexpansion.lostsomethingofitsearlierconfidentlucidity(洞察力)andboldoriginality.CosmopolitanismofthenewcivilizationThebreakupoftheoldorderConstantpoliticalandsocialupheavalPhilosophicalSchoolsintheHellenisticEraStoicism斯多葛派Epicureanism伊壁鳩魯派Skepticism懷疑主義Neoplatonism新柏拉圖主義哲學的轉(zhuǎn)變哲學從純粹思辨退縮回直接的實踐-在思辨理論哲學上沒有重大貢獻，但擷取諸家理論，以為倫理學的基礎；實踐哲學萎縮為個人的倫理學-核心關(guān)注的問題：如何確保個人的幸福，政治實踐僅為附帶的焦點，而智慧的追求則只是手段。晚期古希臘哲學的基本方向

關(guān)鍵問題：如何安身立命，確保個人的幸福斯多葛學派：專注踐行內(nèi)在的德性，不為外部境遇所動搖伊壁鳩魯學派：專注于可掌握的快樂懷疑論學派：懸擱任何正反判斷，消解問題新柏拉圖主義：尋找回歸神圣的「太一」、上帝

StoicismssdfdsfsfZenoofCitium(基提翁的芝諾）AthensIntheearlythirdcenturyB.C.Chrysippus(克里西波斯）systematizedZenoofCitiumChrysippusstoicismAllrealitywaspervadedbyanintelligentdivineforce,theLogosoruniversalreasonwhichorderedallthings.Mancouldachievegenuinehappinessonlybyattuninghislifeandcharactertothisall-powerfulprovidentialwisdom.TobefreewastoliveinconformitywithGod’swill,andwhatmatteredfinallyinlifewasthevirtuousstateofthesoul,notthecircumstancesoftheouterlife.TheStoicsage,markedbyinnerserenity,sternnessinself-discipline,andconscientiousperformanceofduty,wasindifferenttothevagariesofexternalevents.AllhumanbeingssharedinthedivineLogos,allweremembersofauniversalhumancommunity.Epicureanismmankindmustovercomeitssuperstitiousbeliefinthefickle,anthropomorphicgodsofpopulartradition.oneneednotfearthegodsdeath,theextinctionofconsciousnessandnotapreludetoapainfulpunishment.happinessinthislifeSkepticismnotruthscouldbeknowntobecertainandthattheonlyappropriatephilosophicalstancewasthecompletesuspensionofjudgment.conflict,somecriterion,furthercriterion,aninfiniteregressofsuchcriteriapeoplewhobelievedtheycouldknowrealityweresubjecttoconstantfrustrationandunhappinessinlife.conclusionWhileimportantandattractiveintheirdifferentways,theseseveralphilosophiesdidnotentirelysatisfytheHellenisticspiritdivinerealitysciencetheHellenisticerawasanexceptionallyrichagewithseveralremarkableandindispensableculturalaccomplishmentstoitscredit.recognitionoftheearlierGreekachievementanditsconsequentpreservationoftheclassicsfromHomertoAristotle.HumanisticscholarshipEducationAstronomyB.Astronomy歐幾里得阿波羅尼奧斯阿基米德喜帕恰斯托勒密DevelopmentofmathematicalastronomyEudoxus(歐多克索斯):interconnectedhomocentricspheresPythagoreans(畢達哥拉斯學派)：madetheradicalsuggestionthattheEarthmoved.Heraclides(赫拉克利德斯)：thediurnalmovementoftheheavenswasactuallycausedbytheEarth’srotatingonitsaxis,andthatMercuryandVenus,whichalwaysappearedclosetotheSun,didsobecausetheyrevolvedabouttheSunratherthantheEarth.Aristarchus(阿利斯塔克)：theEarthandalltheplanetsrevolvedaroundtheSun,andthattheSunliketheoutersphereofstars,remainedstationary.Thesevariousmodelsweregenerallyrejected,however,forsoundmathematicalandphysicalreasons.ThemajorityofHellenisticastronomersdecidedinfavorofanEarth-centereduniverse,andcontinuedworkingwithvariousgeometricalmodelsforexplainingtheplanetarypositions.Ptolemy(托勒密)codifiedtheseeffortsinthesecondcenturyA.D.ThebasicstructureoftheAristoteliancosmologyastronomers’actualobservationsoftheplanetsWhichdemandedthattheplanetsMoveuniformlyinperfectcirclesAroundacentralimmobileEarth,WhichappearedtomovewithvaryingSpeeds,directions,anddegreesofBrightness.PtolemyoutlinethefollowingschemeBabyloniancontinuedobservationsandlinearcomputationaltechniquesGreekgeometryTheworkoftheGreekastronomersApolloniusandHipparchusTheoutermostrevolvingsphereofthefixedstarsdailycarriedtheentireheavenswestwardabouttheEarth.Ptolemy’scompoundcirclesTogivethefirstsystematicquantitativeaccountofallthecelestialmotionsSynthesizedPtolemaic-AristotelianuniverseThefundamentalworldconceptionAstrologyFormationunderstanding:theheavensasthelocusofthegodsdevelopingastronomyPtolemytheclassicalera’sculminatingsystematizeraunifiedsynthesisofclassicalastrologicaltheoryInteractionofastrologyandastronomyHowdidastrologywork?“asabove,sobelow”theconceptionwasnowplacedintoaGreekframeworkofmathematicalandqualitativeprinciplesPredictioncollectivities&individualAdoptedprinciplesthestructureofthecosmosanditsintrinsicrelationtothemicrocosm,manAnarchetypalunitybetweenagentandreceiverAristotelianphysicsScientificframeworkTheinfluencesofonpeopleOutlookonlifehumanlifewasnotruledbycapriciouschance,butbydestinymancouldunderstandhisfateandactwithanewsenseofcosmicsecurityTheonebeliefsystemRadiationandacceptanceDifferentinterpretationsPtolemyandhiscolleaguesAusefulscienceApplicationtoterrestrialandhumanactivityInherentinexactnessandsusceptibilityPossessedarationalfoundationandfirmprinciplesofoperationGreekandRomanStoicsAmorephilosophicalspiritSignifyingthefundamentaldeterminismofhumanlifebythecelestialbodiesCongenialtotheirworldviewThemysteryreligionsTheplanets’dominationoverhumanlifeApromiseofliberationPlatonistsThecelestialconfigurationasindicativeratherthancausalMancouldplayanactiveroleinthecosmicschemeNeoplatonismOnefieldofthoughtsoughttobridgetheHellenisticschismbetweentherationalphilosophiesandthemysteryreligionsThedevelopmentofPlato’sthoughtThehighesttranscendentprinciple:“theOne”(“太一”)Newemphasison“theflightfromthebody”(“超脫肉體”)LocatingtheForm(型)withinthedivinemindConcernfortheproblemofevilanditsrelationtomatter

Plotinus(柏羅丁)Formulateda“Neoplatonic”philosophyAristotelianthought&amysticalelementGreekrationalphilosophyEndpointAnotherreligiousspirit,asuprarationalmysticismAnewera

Thethree“hypostases”(“實體”)TheOneThedivineIntellectorNounsTheWorldSoulTheOne(太一)TheNeoplatoniccosmosInfiniteinbeingAlsocalledtheGood(善)InahierarchicalseriesofgradationsmovingawayfromthisontologicalcentertotheextremelimitsofthepossibleThethree“hypostases”arenotliteralentitiesbutratherspiritualdispositions,butratherdifferentstatesofbeingofthedivineMind.ThematerialwordInnegativetermsInpositivetermsItreflectsonahigherlevelinthespiritualIntellect’sworldofFormsThenatureofmanissoul-in-bodyPotentialaccesstothehighestintellectualandspiritualrealmsMan’srationalsoulcanreflectthetranscendentFormsTheentireuniverseExistsinaprocessofemanationandreturnThetaskofphilosophersOvercomethehumanbondagetothephysicalrealmbymoralandintellectualself-disciplineandpurificationPlotinus’neoplatonismRationalistandidealistmetaphysicsPrecision&proseBasinghisphilosophyonthePlatonicdoctrineoftranscendentIdeasThefinalexpressionofclassicalpaganphilosophyConclusionNeoplatonismandastrologytranscendedResultsofpenetratingandinterminglingEnduringandhiddeninfluenceAlthoughtheirpopularity,powerfulforceshadbeguntoimpingeThetransformationThelattereffortsofHellenicculturelackedsomething.Hellenisticcivilizationseemedremarkablefor:VarietybutforceWorldlyintelligencebutinspiredgeniusSustaining&elaborationbutoriginationofnewonesTheculturaloutlookwasunsettledHumansubordinationtotheoverwhelmingpowersofthesupernaturalTheHellenicimpulsewasfadingRomeWhyclassicalcivilizationwouldflourish?spurredbytheRepublic’smilitaristicandlibertarianethosnourishedbythePaxRomanaExtensionGeography:theentireMediterraneanbasinandalargepartofEuropeCivilization:theknownworldWhycoulditbepossible?JuliusCaesar:militarytactics&politicalgeniusThecontributionforclassicalachievementsBroughttheLatinlanguagetoaneloquentmaturityHumanitasGreekmythology&RomanmythologyRomanlegalthoughtTheweaknessoftheRomancultureThelossofvitalityoftheRomanethosDiminishingofmostscientificactivityLatinlanguagebegantowaneFaithinhumanprogressdisappearedFactorsonRome’sfallGovernment:oppressiveGenerals:overambitiousIncursions:constantAristocracy:decadentReligiouscrosscurrentsInflationDiseasesAdwindlingpopulation2.TheEmergenc