歐洲文化入門3Middle Ages

EuropeanCulture:AnIntroductionDivisionThreeTheMiddleAgesTheMiddleAgesⅠ.GeneralIntroductionⅡ.ManorandChurchⅢ.LearningandScienceⅣ.LiteratureⅤ.ArtandArchitecture

I.GeneralIntroductionInEuropeanhistory,thethousand-yearperiodfollowingthefalloftheWesternRomanEmpireinthefifthcenturyiscalledtheMiddleAges.I.GeneralIntroductionBetweenancienttimesandmoderntimes.WesternEurope:asceneofwarsandinvasions傳統(tǒng)上認(rèn)為這是歐洲文明史上比較貧乏的時(shí)期。歐洲的封建社會(huì)主要經(jīng)歷了三個(gè)發(fā)展階段：公元5世紀(jì)至11世紀(jì)，這是歐洲封建社會(huì)的形成時(shí)期；公元11世紀(jì)至15世紀(jì)，歐洲處于封建制度的鼎盛時(shí)期；公元15世紀(jì)至17世紀(jì)，歐洲的封建經(jīng)濟(jì)逐漸瓦解，開始從封建制度向資本主義制度過(guò)渡。

I.GeneralIntroductionFeudalismwastheprimarypoliticalsystemoftheMiddleAges.TheexistenceoffeudalismisoneofthemostimportantfactsabouttheMiddleAges.ItisthiswhichmakesthegovernmentofthatperiodsodifferentfromthegovernmentsofGreeceandRome,andalsofromthegovernmentsoftoday.Inthecompletedsystem,thekingofthelandstoodatthetop;thenunderhimwerehisvassals,andunderthemweretheirvassals,—andsoonuntilthepeasants.Theywerelandless“serfs”andhadtosupportalltheclassesabovethem.TheMiddleAgesisalsocalledthe“AgeofFaith”：DuringtheMedievaltimestherewasnocentralgovernmenttokeeptheorder.TheonlyorganizationthatseemedtouniteEuropewastheChristianchurch.Itcontinuedtogainwidespreadpowerandinfluence.IntheLateMiddleAges,almosteveryoneinwesternEuropewasaChristianandamemberofChristianchurch.Christianitytooktheleadinpolitics,law,art,andlearningforhundredsofyears.Itshapedpeople’slives.II.Manor

andChurch

Feudalism

TheChurch

TheCrusades

FeudalismFeudalisminEuropewasmainlyasystemoflandholding–asystemofholdinglandinexchangeformilitaryservice.ThegrowthofthefeudalsystemwasgoingoneverywhereinWesternEuropefromabouttheeighthtotheeleventhcenturies.Itgrewslowly,butitgrewsurely.FeudalismwasderivedfromtheLatin“feudum”,meaningagrantofland.GrowthofFeudalismWhenthewesternRomanEmpiregrewweak,peoplelivedinconstantdangerofattacksfrominvadersandrobbers.Ownersofsmallfarmssoughtprotectionfromlargeland-owners,bygivingthemlandandservices.Inreturnthelargelandownerspromisedtoprotectthelandlesspeasantsandtheirfamilies.Thenin732CharlesMartel,aFrankishrulergavehissoldersestatesknownasfiefsasarewardfortheirservice.After800,thekingsinEuropewereusuallyveryweak.Somenoblesgrewmorepowerfulthantheking,andbecameindependentrulers.TheManorThecentreofmedievallifeunderfeudalismwasthemanor.Manorswerefoundedonthefiefsofthelords.Somelordsownedonlyonemanor;othersownedmany.Theylivedinamanorhouse.Bythetwelfthcenturymanorhousesweremadeofstoneanddesignedasfortresses.Theycametobecalledcastles.KnighthoodandCodeofChivalryAlmostallnobleswereknightsintheMedievaldays.Butnoonewasbornaknight.Anoblebeganhiseducationasapageatseven.Hewastaughttosayhisprayers,learnedgoodmannersandranerrandsfortheladies.Ataboutfourteen,thepagebecameasquireorassistanttoaknightwhobecamehismaster.Hewastaughtthedutiesofaknightandpracticedusingasward,lanceandshield.Hewentintobattlewithhismaster.Ifthesquireprovedtobeagoodfighter,hewouldbemadeaknightataspecialceremonyknownasdubbing.Asaknight,hewaspledgedtoprotecttheweak,tofightforthechurch,tobeloyaltohislordandtorespectwomenofnoblebirth.Theseruleswereknownascodeofchivalry.

TheChurchTheOrganizationofChurchChurchFatherandEarlyMonasticismThePowerandInfluenceoftheCatholicChurchAfter1054,theChurchwasdividedintotheRomanCatholicChurchandtheEasternOrthodoxChurch.InordertodevelopacivilizationbasedonChristianity,theCatholicChurchmadeLatintheofficiallanguageandhelpedtopreserveandpassontheheritageoftheRomanEmpire.TheOrganizationofChurchTheCatholicChurchwasahighlycentralizedanddisciplinedinternationalorganization.Pope(supremehead)ReligiousOitarymonastic2.livedinmonasteries(abbeys)governedbyabbotsArchbishops(province)CollegeofCardinals1.electedpope2.servedasadvisors3.nextinpowertopopeBishops(diocese)Priests(parish)LayMembersofCatholicChurchChurchFatherandEarlyMonasticismInthebeginningthecontroversywasmainlyovertheplaceofChristinthetrinity--Power(theFather),wisdom(theSon)andLove(theHolySpirit).圣父，圣子與圣靈AnotablechampionofearlymonasticismwasSt.Jerome,whotranslatedintoLatinbothOldandNewTestamentsfromtheHebrewandGreekoriginals.ThemostimportantofalltheleadersofChristianthoughtwasAugustineofHippowholivedinNorthAfricainthefifthcentury.“TheConfession”and“TheCityofGod”byhimaremasterpiecesofworldrenown.AnothergreatearlymonkwasSt.BenedictwhofoundedBenedictineRuleinabout529A.D.ThePowerandInfluenceoftheCatholicChurchUnderfeudalism,peopleofwesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclasses:

clergy,lordsandpeasants.TheMedievalChurchwasthecentreofdailylifeinthecountryandtownalike,andithadapartinallimportantevents.TheCrusadesTheCrusadeswereaseriesofreligiouslysanctionedmilitarycampaigns,wagedbymuchofRomanCatholicEurope.EightchiefCrusades:FirstCrusade-1096-1099SecondCrusade-1147-1149ThirdCrusade-1189-1192FourthCrusade-1202-1204FifthCrusade-1218-1221SixthCrusade-1228-1229SeventhCrusade-1248-1254EighthCrusade-1270ConsequencesoftheCrusades

TheybroughttheEastintoclosercontactwiththeWest,andgreatlyinfluencedthehistoryofEurope.Crusadeshelpedtobreakdownfeudalism.Thecrusadesalsoresultedinrenewingpeople’sinterestinlearningandinvention.

Ⅲ.LearningandScience

CharlemagneandCarolingianRenaissanceAlfredtheGreatandWessexCentreofLearningSt.ThomasAquinasandScholasticismRogerBaconandExperimentalScienceCharlemagneandCarolingianRenaissanceCharlemagne查理曼大帝(742-814),amongmanyotherthingshedid,encouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools,givingsupporttoscholarsandsettingscribestoworkcopingvariousancientbooks.他創(chuàng)造了加洛林王朝，在行政、司法、軍事制度及經(jīng)濟(jì)生產(chǎn)等方面都有杰出的建樹，并大力發(fā)展文化教育事業(yè)。是他引入了歐洲文明，他被后世尊稱為“歐洲之父”。TheresultofCharlemagne’seffortisusuallycalledthe“CarolingianRenaissance”AlfredtheGreatandWessexCentreofLearningAlfredtheGreat

(849-899),ruleroftheAnglo-SaxonkingdomofWessex,alearnedman,worriedaboutthedisappearanceoflearningandmadeWessextheAnglo-Saxonculturalcentrebyintroducingteachersandscholars,foundingnewmonasteries,andpromotingtranslationsintothevernacularfromLatinworks.St.ThomasAquinasandScholasticismSt.ThomasAquinas圣托馬斯阿奎那

(1225-1274)wasanItalianPhilosopherandtheologian,thesupremefigureinscholasticism,themedievalphilosophicalefforttoharmonizefaithandreason.Works:SummaContraVentiles,SummaTheologicaRogerBaconandExperimentalScienceRogerBacon羅吉爾·培根

(about1220-1292),amonk,wasoneoftheearliestadvocatesofscientificresearch.Hecalledforcarefulobservationandexperimentation.Work:Opusmaius《自然科學(xué)總則》NotFrancisBacon（1561--1626）IV.Literature

NationalEpics

DanteAlighieriandTheDivineComedy

GeofferyChaucerandTheCanterburyTalesNationalEpicsNationalepicreferstotheepicwritteninvernacularlanguages--thatis,thelanguagesofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingintheMiddleAges.a.Beowulfb.SongofRolandBeowulfBeowulfistheconventionaltitleofanOldEnglishheroicepicpoemconsistingof3182alliterativelonglines,setinScandinavia,commonlycitedasoneofthemostimportantworksofAnglo-Saxonliterature.ItscompositionbyananonymousAnglo-Saxonpoetisdatedbetweenthe8thandtheearly11thcentury.BeowulfInthepoem,Beowulf,aherooftheGeats,battlesthreeantagonists:Grendel,whohasbeenattackingtheresidentwarriorsofthemeadhallofHroegar(thekingoftheDanes),Grendel'smother,andanunnameddragon.Afterthefirsttwovictories,BeowulfgoeshometoGeatlandinSwedenandbecomeskingoftheGeats.Thelastfighttakesplacefiftyyearslater.Inthisfinalbattle,Beowulfisfatallywounded.Afterhisdeath,hisservantsburyhiminatumulusinGeatland.DanteAlighieriandTheDivineComedyDanteAlighieri但丁(1265-1321)，oneofthepioneersofRenaissance,wasthegreatestpoetofItalyandalsoaprosewriter,literarytheorist,moralphilosopheraswellaspoliticalthinker.恩格斯評(píng)價(jià)說(shuō)：“封建的中世紀(jì)的終結(jié)和現(xiàn)代資本主義紀(jì)元的開端，是以一位大人物為標(biāo)志的，這位人物就是意大利人但丁，他是中世紀(jì)的最后一位詩(shī)人，同時(shí)又是新時(shí)代的最初一位詩(shī)人”。Masterpiece:TheDivineComedy這部作品由《地獄》、《煉獄》和《天堂》三部分構(gòu)成，各篇長(zhǎng)短大致相等，通過(guò)作者與地獄、煉獄及天國(guó)中各種著名人物的對(duì)話，反映出中古文化領(lǐng)域的成就和一些重大的問(wèn)題。在這部長(zhǎng)達(dá)一萬(wàn)四千余行的史詩(shī)中，但丁強(qiáng)調(diào)人的“自由意志”，堅(jiān)決反對(duì)中世紀(jì)的蒙昧主義、宗教宿命論，抨擊教會(huì)的貪婪腐化和封建統(tǒng)治的黑暗殘暴，歌頌有遠(yuǎn)大抱負(fù)和堅(jiān)毅剛強(qiáng)的英雄豪杰，表達(dá)了執(zhí)著地追求真理的思想。從中也可隱約窺見(jiàn)文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期人文主義思想的曙光，對(duì)歐洲后世的詩(shī)歌創(chuàng)作有極其深遠(yuǎn)的影響。

GeofferyChaucerandTheCanterburyTalesChaucer喬叟(1340-1400)wasanEnglishpoet,afull-blownflowerofEnglishmedievalliterature.TheCan