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第3章分析功能主義:帕森斯帕森斯或許是他那個(gè)時(shí)代最重要的理論家,再也不會有哪種理論能如此顯要地占據(jù)社會學(xué)理論的地位。毫無疑問,從20世紀(jì)50年代到70年代末,帕森斯的功能主義始終是社會學(xué)理論論戰(zhàn)的焦點(diǎn)。這一點(diǎn),甚至連那些對帕森斯的功能學(xué)說持否定態(tài)度的人也無法否認(rèn)。即使在帕森斯仙逝多年和功能主義理論鼎盛歲月過去十多年之后,他的功能主義依然是爭論的主題。要評價(jià)帕森斯的貢獻(xiàn)及功能主義對20世紀(jì)下半葉社會學(xué)的影響,我認(rèn)為最好從1937年他出版第一部重要著作《社會行動的結(jié)構(gòu)》開始。3AnalyticalFunctionalism:TalcottParsons

TalcottParsons(1902-1979)wasprobablythemostprominenttheoristofhistime,anditisunlikelythatanyonetheoreticalapproachwillsodominatesociologicaltheoryagain.Intheyearsbetween1950andthelate:1970s,Parsonianfunctionalismclearlythefocalpointaroundwhichthe-oreticalcontroversyraged.EventhosewhodespisedParsons'functionalapproachcould'notignoreit.Evennow,yearsafterhisdeathandmorethandecadessinceitsperiodofdominance,Parsomanfunctionalismisstillthesubjectofcontroversy.ToappreciateParsons'achievementinbringingfunctionalismtothesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,itisbesttostartatthebeginning,in1937,whenhepublishedhisfirstmajorwork,TheStructureOfSocialAction.社會行動的結(jié)構(gòu)

在《社會行動的結(jié)構(gòu)》一書中,帕森斯提倡用“分析性現(xiàn)實(shí)主義”來建立社會學(xué)理論。我們要用少量社會學(xué)理論的重要概念來“恰當(dāng)?shù)亍斫狻獠渴澜绲母鱾€(gè)方面……這些概念并不對應(yīng)具體的現(xiàn)象,而是對應(yīng)從這些現(xiàn)象中可以分離出來和可以分析的要素”。首先,理論必須包含從復(fù)雜的經(jīng)驗(yàn)現(xiàn)實(shí)中抽象出涵蓋面廣、可分析的概念。這樣,概念就把現(xiàn)象從復(fù)雜的社會現(xiàn)實(shí)中分離出來。THESTRUCTUREOFSOCIALACTION

InThe

StructureofSocialAction,Parsonsadvocatedusingan"analyticalrealism"tobuildsociologicaltheory.Theoryinsociologymustusealimitednumberofimportantconceptsthat"adequately"graspaspectsoftheexternalworld……Theseconceptsdo.notcorrespondtoconcretephenomena;buttoelementsinthemthatareanalyticallyseparablefromotherelements."Thus,first,theorymustinvolvethedevelopmentofconceptsthatabstractfromempiricalreality,inallitsdiversityandconfusion,conmmonanaluticalemements.Inthisway,conceptswillisolatephenomenafromtheirembeddednessinthecomplexrelationsthatconstitutesocialreality.帕森斯分析性現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的特點(diǎn)就是他堅(jiān)持把抽象概念應(yīng)用于社會學(xué)的分析。帕森斯不提倡把這些概念直接搬用到理論陳述中,而是主張發(fā)展一種“一般化的概念體系”。對抽象概念的這種應(yīng)用,就是要把概念變成能反映“現(xiàn)實(shí)世界”重要特征的連續(xù)整體,而研究的目標(biāo)就是用概念形成能理解社會重要特征的分析框架,而不被具體的經(jīng)驗(yàn)細(xì)節(jié)所掩蓋。這種強(qiáng)調(diào)范疇體系的方法體現(xiàn)了帕森斯在分析人類社會時(shí)對韋伯理想型方法的運(yùn)用。因此,帕森斯和韋伯一樣,主張理論應(yīng)當(dāng)首先對社會現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行細(xì)致的劃分,使其范疇化,并能夠反映社會現(xiàn)象的重要特征。這種方法在帕森斯的第一部重要著作中體現(xiàn)得尤為明顯。在這部著作中,帕森斯發(fā)展了“行動唯意志論”。TheuniquefeatureofParson'sanalyticalrealismistheinsistenceonhowtheseabstractconceptsaretobeemployedinsociologicalanalysis.Parsonsdidnotadvocatetheimmediateincorporationoftheseconceptsintotheoreticalstatementsbut,rather,advocatedtheirusetodevelopa"generalizedsystemofconcepts."Thisuseofabstractconceptswouldinvolvetheirorderingintoacoherentwholethatwouldreflecttheimportantfeaturesofthe"realworld”.Whatissoughtisanorganizationofconceptsintoanalyticalsystemsthatgraspthesilenctandsystemicfeaturesoftheuniversewithoutbeingoverwhelmedbyempiricaldetails.ThisemphasisonsystemsofcategoriesrepresentsParsons'application.ofMaxWeber'sideal-typestrategyforanalyticallyaccentuatingsalientfeaturesoftheworld.Thus,muchlikeWeber,Parsonsbelievedthattheorvshouldinitiallyresembleanelaborateclassificationandcategorizationofsocialphenomenathatreflectssignificantfeaturesintheorganizationofthesesocialphenomena.ThisstrategywasevidentinParsons'firstmajorwork,wherehedevelopedthe"voluntaristictheoryofaction."

帕森斯相信“行動唯意志論”意味著對功利主義、實(shí)證主義和唯心主義中有益假定和概念的綜合。帕森斯回顧了古典經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家的思想,注意到他們的極端功利主義:不受約束的行動者在自由競爭的市場中理性地選擇那些能使自己在與他人的交往中獲取最大利潤的行為。帕森斯認(rèn)為這種對社會秩序的概括有一些致命的問題:人類總能理智地行動嗎?他們真的是自由而不受約束的嗎?怎樣才可能在一種沒有控制并競爭著的系統(tǒng)中維持秩序?但是,帕森斯同樣看到了功利主義思想中有價(jià)值的東西,尤其是功利主義關(guān)于行動者追求目標(biāo)的敘述和對人們權(quán)衡利弊和做出選擇的能力的強(qiáng)調(diào)。帕森斯以最簡單的方式描述了功利主義,并認(rèn)為功利主義思想確實(shí)能使社會學(xué)理論繼續(xù)從中汲取營養(yǎng)。他還用相似的批判立場,否定了激進(jìn)實(shí)證主義者用物理現(xiàn)象中可觀察的因果關(guān)系來考察社會的極端形式。帕森斯認(rèn)為,這些實(shí)證主義者的考察忽視了人類思想復(fù)雜的符號功能。另外,帕森斯也意識到,強(qiáng)調(diào)可觀察的因果關(guān)系,很容易導(dǎo)致無休止的還原論:群體還原為其個(gè)體成員間的因果關(guān)系,個(gè)體還原為個(gè)體生理過程的因果關(guān)系,而生理過程又可還原為物理化學(xué)關(guān)系,等等,直到還原為自然界分子之間最基本的因果關(guān)系。激進(jìn)實(shí)證主義盡管存在這些極端,但仍有值得借鑒的東西,如將注意力放在社會中的物理參數(shù)及其對眾多(不是全部)社會組織的決定性影響上。最后,在評價(jià)唯心主義時(shí),帕森斯看到,用各種“理念”的概念去約束人們和社會的過程仍是有意義的,盡管有些“理念”類型并不存在于常常被其要調(diào)節(jié)的、正在運(yùn)行的社會生活中。Parsonsbelievedthatthe"voluntaristictheoryofaction"represencedasynthesisoftheusefulassumptionsandconceptsofutilitarianism,positivism,andidealism.Inreviewingthethoughtofclassicaleconomists,Parsonsnotedtheexcessivenessoftheirutilitarianism:unregulatedandatomisticactorsinafreeandcompetitivemarketplacerationallyattemptingtochoosethosebehamorsthatwillmaxirmzetheirprofitsintheirtransactionswithothers.Parsonsbelievedsuchaformulationofthesocialorderpresentedseveralcriticalproblems:Dohumansalwaysbehaverationally?Aretheyindeedfreeandunregulated?Howisorderpossibleinanunregulatedandcompetitivesystem?Yet,Parsonssawasfruitfulseveralfeaturesofutilitarianthought,especiallytheconcernwithactorsasseeking,goalsandtheemphasisonthechoice-makingcapacitiesofhumanbeingswhoweighalternativelinesofaction.Statedinthisminimalform,Parsonsfeltthattheutilitarianheritagecouldindeedcontinuetoinformsociologicaltheorizing.Inasimilarcriticalstance,Parsonsrejectedtheextremeformulationsofradicalpositivists,whotendedtoviewthesocialworldasobservablecause-and-effectrelationshipsamongphysicalphenomena.Insodoing,hefelt,theyignoredthecomplexsymbolicfunctioningsofthehumanmind.Furthermore.Parsonssawtheemphasisonobservablecause-and-effectrelationshipsastooeasilyencouragingasequenceofinfinitereductionism:Groupswerereducedtothecausalrelationshipsoftheeirindividualmembers;individualswerereducibletothecause-and-effectrelationshipsoftheirphysiologicalprocesses;thesewerereducibletophysicochemicalrelationships,andsoon,downtothemostbasiccause-and-effectconnectionsamongparticlesofphysicalmatter.Nevertheless,despitetheseextremes,radicalpositivismdrawsattentiontothephysicalparametersofsociallifeandtothedeterministicimpactoftheseparametersonmuch-butofcoursenotallsocialorganization.Finallyinassessingidealism,Parsonssawasusefultheconceptionsof"ideas"thatcircumscribebothindividualandsocialprocesses,althoughalltoofrequentlytheseideasareseenasdetachedfromtheongoingsociallifetheyweresupposedtoregulate.

帕森斯對這些傳統(tǒng)的深刻分析是無法言傳的。不過,比他的分析細(xì)節(jié)更為重要的是,他把這些從各個(gè)傳統(tǒng)思想中挑選出來的概念組合起來,建構(gòu)了行動的唯意志論。從這里開始,帕森斯按照他的理論創(chuàng)建方法,構(gòu)造了關(guān)于社會組織的功能理論。他首先把唯意志論定義為個(gè)體行動者主觀決策的過程。他認(rèn)為這種決策是某些包括規(guī)范和情景在內(nèi)的條件制約的結(jié)果。因此,意志性行動包括了下列因素:(1)行動者。在帕森斯的體系內(nèi),行動者是個(gè)人;(2)行動者被假定總是尋求目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn);(3)行動者具備實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)的多種手段;(4)行動者面臨的各種情境條件(如行動者的生理構(gòu)成、遺傳特征和外部的生態(tài)限制)都會影響目標(biāo)和手段的選擇;(5)行動者被各種價(jià)值觀、規(guī)范和其他理念所支配,這些價(jià)值觀、規(guī)范和理念影響著建立目標(biāo)的和實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)的手段;(6)行動涉及到行動者為選擇實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)的手段而做出的主觀決定,而所有這些都受到理念和情境條件的限制。ThedepthofscholarshipinParsons'analysisofthesetraditionsisimpossibletocommunicate.Moreimportantthanthedetailsofhisanalysisistheweavingofselectedconceptsfromeachofthesetraditionsintoavoluntaristic

theoryofaction.Atthisstartingpoint,inaccordancewithhistheory-building

strategy,Parsonsbegan

toconstructafunctionaltheoryofsocialorganization.Inthisinitial,formulation,heconceptualizedvoluntarismasthesubjectivedecision-makingprocessesorindividualactors,butneviewedsucndecisions

asthepartialoutcomeofcertainkindsofconstraints,bothnormativeandsituational.Voluntaristicactionthereforeinvolvesthesebasicelements:.(1)Actors,whoatthispointinParsons'thinkingareindividualpersons.(2)Actorsare

viewedasgoalseeking.(3)Actorsalsopossessalternativemeanstoachievethe

goals.(4)Actorsareconfrontedwithavarietyofsituationalconditions,such

astheirownbiologicalmakeupandheredityaswellasvariousexternalecologicalconstraints,thatinfluencetheselectionofgoalsandmeans.(5)Actors

aregovernedbyvalues,norms,andotherideassuchthattheseideasinfluence

whatisconsideredagoalandwhatmeansareselectedtoachieveit.(6)Action

involvesactorsmakingsubjectivedecisionsaboutthemeanstoachievegoals,allofwhichareconstrainedbyideasandsituationalconditions.圖3-1反映了唯意志論的概念框架。圖表化的過程被定義為“單位行動”,社會行動包括一個(gè)或多個(gè)行動者一系列的單位行動。帕森斯至少因?yàn)閮蓚€(gè)原因?qū)⒆⒁饬Ψ诺搅诵袆拥幕締挝簧稀J紫?,他認(rèn)為有必要把歷史上關(guān)于基本社會過程的社會思想進(jìn)行綜合,并將其分解為最基本的單元。其次,遵循他關(guān)于理論應(yīng)當(dāng)如何的立場,在社會學(xué)理論的發(fā)展中,分析的第一任務(wù)就是把構(gòu)成更為復(fù)雜過程和結(jié)構(gòu)的最基本單位的系統(tǒng)特征從概念上分離出來。Figure3.1representsthisconceptualizationofvoluntarism.Theprocessesdiagrammedareoftentermedtheunitact,withsocialactioninvolvingasuccessionofsuchunitactsbyoneormoreactors.Parsonschosetofocusonsuchbasic

unitsofactionforatleasttworeasons.First,hefeltitnecessaryto

synthesize

the

historicallegacyofsocialthoughtaboutthemostbasicsocialprocessandtodisectitintoitsmostelementarycomponents.Second,givenhispositiononwhattheoryshouldbe,thefirstanalyticaltaskinthedevelopmentofsociologicaltheoryistoisolateconceptuallythesystemicfeaturesofthemostbasicunitfrom

whichmorecomplexprocessesandstructuresarebuilt.在完成上述工作后,帕森斯進(jìn)一步追問:單位行動之間是如何聯(lián)系的?這種聯(lián)系如何以概念的方式表現(xiàn)出來?事實(shí)上,在《社會行動的結(jié)構(gòu)》結(jié)尾,帕森斯承認(rèn),“任何基本系統(tǒng),即可辨識的單位行動發(fā)揮作用的系統(tǒng)……必然不能充分地說明高一層的那些要素,也不能應(yīng)用于復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)”。中不過,他只是在最后幾頁才略帶提及這個(gè)問題。Oncethesebasictaskswerecompleted,Parsonsbegantoask:Howare

unit

actsconnectedto

eachother,andhowcanthisconnectednessbe

conceptually

represented?Indeed,neartheendofTheStructureofSocial

Action,herecognizedthat"anyatomisticsystemthatdealsonlywith

propertiesidentifiablein

theunitact……willofnecessityfailtotreatthese

latterelementsadequately

andbeindeterminateasappliedtocomplex

systems.However,only

the

barest

hintsofwhatwastocomewereevident

inthoseclosingpages.社會系統(tǒng)

圖3-2概述了從單位行動向社會系統(tǒng)的轉(zhuǎn)化。這種轉(zhuǎn)化占據(jù)了帕森斯第二部重要著作《社會系統(tǒng)》的前面部分。在這一問題上,帕森斯從韋伯類型學(xué)的方法中得到啟發(fā),他認(rèn)為行動者的行動受到動機(jī)(調(diào)動能量的需要和愿望)和價(jià)值觀(關(guān)于什么是“正確的”觀念)的驅(qū)使,同時(shí),行動又是情境“取向”的。就動機(jī)而言,可以分為三種:(1)認(rèn)知類(對信息的需要),(2)情感類(對感情寄托的需要),(3)評價(jià)類(對評價(jià)的需要)。同時(shí),存在著三種相應(yīng)的價(jià)值觀:(1)認(rèn)知類(按照客觀標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行的評價(jià)),(2)鑒賞類(按照審美的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行的評價(jià)),(3)道德類(根據(jù)絕對的正誤標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行的評價(jià))。這就是帕森斯的“取向模式”(modeloforientation)。顯然他的討論是含混的,但基本想法好像是說,按照這些動機(jī)和價(jià)值相關(guān)的特征構(gòu)成的某種復(fù)合行動,對任何行動者而言,都可能是以下三種行動類型中的一種:(1)工具性(行動定位于有效地實(shí)現(xiàn)既定的目標(biāo)),(2)表意性(行動定位于實(shí)現(xiàn)情感上的滿足),(3)道德性(行動定位于是非標(biāo)準(zhǔn))。也就是說,行動者根據(jù)某種最強(qiáng)的動機(jī)和價(jià)值觀出發(fā),按照上述某種基本方式行動。例如,如果行動者的認(rèn)知動機(jī)很強(qiáng)烈,并且認(rèn)知價(jià)值也最突出,那么他們的行動將主要是工具性的,當(dāng)然也包含表意性的和道德性的內(nèi)容。因此,取向模式(即動機(jī)和價(jià)值)的各種結(jié)合和替代產(chǎn)生了與某個(gè)方向相符合的行動。THESOCIALSYSTEM

Figure3.2

summarizesthetransitionfromunitactstosocialsystem.Thistransition

occupiesthe

earlypartsof

Parsons'nextsignificantwork,TheSocial

System.DrawinginspirationfromWeber'stypologicalapproachtothissame

topic,Parsonsviewedactorsas"oriented"tosituationsbymotives(needsand

readinesstomobilizeenergy)andvalues(conceptionsaboutwhatisappropriate).Therearethreetypesofmotives:(1)cognitive(needforinformation),

(2)cathectic(needforemotionalattachment),and(3)evaluative(needfor

assessment).Also,therearethreecorrespondingtypesofvalues:(1)cognitive

(evaluationbyobjectivestandards),(2)appreciative(evaluationbyaesthetic

standards),and(3)moral(evaluationbyabsoluterightnessandwrongness).Parsonscalledthesemodesoforientation.Althoughthisdiscussionissomewhat

vague,thegeneralideaseemstobethattherelativesalienceofthesemotives

actorcreatesacompositetypeofaction,whichcanbeoneofthreetypes:(1)instrumental(actionorientetorealize

whichcanbeone

explicitgoalseffficiently),(2)expressive(actiondirectedatrealizingemotionalsatisfactions),and(3)moral(actionconcernedwithrealizingstandardsofrightandwrong).Thatis,dependingonwhichmodesofmotivationalandvalueorientationare

strongest,anactorwillactinoneofthesebasicways.Forexample,ifcognitivearestrongandcognitivevaluesmostsalient,thenactionwillbe

primarilyinstrumental,althoughtheactionwillalsohaveexpressiveandmoral

content.Thus,thevariouscombinationsandpermutationsofthemodesof

orientation-thatis,motivesand

values-produceactiongearedinoneof

thesegeneraldirections.因此,“單位行動”牽涉到動機(jī)和價(jià)值取向,對每個(gè)行動者來說,其主要價(jià)值和動機(jī)的結(jié)合決定了單位行動的基本方向。至此,帕森斯只是表述了他關(guān)于單位行動的基本概念。重要的是他在((社會行動的結(jié)構(gòu)》一書的最后幾頁所暗示的觀點(diǎn):隨各種不同取向的行動者(不同行動和價(jià)值取向的不同結(jié)合)互動,就會逐漸產(chǎn)生約定,并維持互動模式,這就是“制度化”。以帕森斯的觀點(diǎn)來看,這種制度化模式可稱之為社會系統(tǒng)。這個(gè)系統(tǒng)顯示了自己的概念體系的自然產(chǎn)生。帕森斯這一思想的關(guān)鍵,是規(guī)范性的地位一角色組織。也就是說,社會學(xué)的任務(wù)就是把地位、角色和規(guī)范組織起來。然而,帕森斯承認(rèn),擔(dān)當(dāng)此地位一角色的行動者,具動機(jī)和價(jià)值的取向。于是,理論的宗旨就變成了用系統(tǒng)的術(shù)語把這些不同維度的行動概念化。結(jié)果是,行動被概念化為三種“相互滲透的行動系統(tǒng)”—文化的、社會的和人格的行動系統(tǒng)。就是說,由單位行動構(gòu)成的社會系統(tǒng),需要同時(shí)使動機(jī)概念化為人格系統(tǒng),使價(jià)值概念化為文化系統(tǒng)。這樣,行動理論的目標(biāo)就變成理解制度化模式(即社會系統(tǒng))是如何被價(jià)值觀、信仰、規(guī)范及其他觀念的復(fù)合體(即文化系統(tǒng))以及動機(jī)與角色扮演技巧的結(jié)構(gòu)(即人格系統(tǒng))所制約的。后來,帕森斯加上了有機(jī)(以后又稱為行為)系統(tǒng)。不過,我們還是按部就班地來講述,因?yàn)樵诟拍罨A段,解析社會系統(tǒng)意味著建立一個(gè)概念系統(tǒng)。概念系統(tǒng)首先在不同層次上把握住了社會系統(tǒng)的特征,其次它指出了人格系統(tǒng)、社會系統(tǒng)和文化模式的聯(lián)系方式。"Unitacts"thereforeinvolvemotivationalandvalueorientationsandhave

ageneraldirectionasaconsequenceofthecombinationofvaluesandmotives

thatprevailsforanactor.ThusfarParsonshadelaboratedonlyonhisconceptualizationoftheunitact.Thecriticalnextstep,",whichwasonlyhintedatin

theclosingpagesofTheStructureofSocialAction:Asvariouslyorientedactors

(intheconfigurationofmotivationalandvalueorientations)interact,they

developagreementsandsustainpatternsofinteraction,whichbecome"insti-tutionalized."Suchinstitutionalizedpatternscanbe,inParsons'view,conceptualizedasasocialsystem.Suchasystemrepresentsanemergentphenomenon

thatrequiresitsownconceptualedifice.Thenormativeorganizationofstatus-rolesbecomesParsons'keytothisconceptualization;thatis,thesubjectmat-

terofsociologyistheorganizationofstatus,roles,andnorms.Yet,Parsons

recognizedthattheactorswhoareincumbentinstatus-rolesaremotivationallyandvalueoriented;thus,aswithpatternsofinteraction,thetasknow

becomesoneofconceptualizingthesedianensionsofactioninsystemicterms

Theresultistheconceptualizationofactionascomposedofthree"interpenetratingactionsystems":thecultural,thesocial,andthepersonality.Thatis,

theorganizationofunitactsintosocialsystemsrequiresaparallelconceptualizationofmotivesandvaluesthatbecome,respectively,thepersonalityand

culturalsystems.Thegoalofactiontheorynowbecomesunderstandinghow

institutionalizedpatternsof

interaction(thesocialsystem)arecircumscribedby

complexesofvalues,beliefs,norms,andotherideas(theculturalsystem)and

byconfigurationsofmotivesandrole-playingskills(thepersonalitysystem).LaterParsonsaddedtheorganismic(subsequentlycalledbehavioral)system,

butletusnotgetaheadofthestory.Atthisstageofconceptualization,analyzingsocialsystemsinvolvesdevelopingasystemofconceptsthat,first,capturesthesystemicfeaturesofsocietyatallitsdiverselevelsand,second,points

tothemodesofarticulationamongpersonalitysystems,socialsystems,and

culturalpatterns.在發(fā)展表述所有行動系統(tǒng)屬性的概念的過程中.帕森斯形成了一套表達(dá)系統(tǒng)變量屬性的概念。即“模式變量”。運(yùn)用模式變量可以同時(shí)把人格系統(tǒng)中的取向模式、文化的價(jià)值模式和社會系統(tǒng)中的規(guī)范要求類別化。這種方法被稱為二分法,即根據(jù)被分析的系統(tǒng)就可以對行動者的決定、文化價(jià)值取向或身份角色要求進(jìn)行粗略的劃分:1.情感性一情感中立性。在特定的互動情景中,多少情感介入是恰當(dāng)?shù)?應(yīng)該表達(dá)許多情感還是表達(dá)很少情感?2.擴(kuò)散性一專一性。在特定的互動情景中,雙方的義務(wù)應(yīng)該有多大?義務(wù)應(yīng)當(dāng)集中和具體,還是應(yīng)當(dāng)廣泛而分散?3.普遙性一特殊性。在特定的互動情景中,他人的評價(jià)和判斷是否適用于所有行動者?換句話說,是否應(yīng)用同一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)來評價(jià)所有的行動者?4.自致性一先賦性。是關(guān)于如何評價(jià)某一行動者的問題。是根據(jù)表現(xiàn),還是根據(jù)先天的特質(zhì)如性別、年齡、種族和家庭地位去評價(jià)他?行動者是應(yīng)當(dāng)根據(jù)成就,還是應(yīng)當(dāng)根據(jù)與成績無關(guān)的先天特質(zhì)去評價(jià)他人?5.自我一集體。是指行動追求自我利益及個(gè)人目標(biāo)或者群體利益及目標(biāo)。行動者是考慮將個(gè)人的或與其有關(guān)的目標(biāo)置于其所在大群體,還是相反的目標(biāo)之上的?

Inhiscommitmenttodevelopingconceptsthatreflectthepropertiesofallactionsystems,Parsonswasledtoasetofconceptsdenotingsomeofthe

variablepropertiesofthesesystems.Termedpattern

variables,theysimultaneously

allow

thecategorizationofthemodesoforientationinpersonalitysystems,the

valuepatternsofculture,andthenormativerequirementsinsocialsystems.

Thevariablesarephrasedaspolardichotomiesthat,dependingonthesystem

underanalysis,allowaroughcategorizationofdecisionsbyactors,thevalue

orientationsofculture,orthenormativedemandsonstatusroles.1.Affectivity/affectiveneutralityconcernstheamountofemotionoraffectthat

isappropriateinagiveninteractionsituation.Shouldagreatdealorlittle

affectbeexpressed?2.Diffuseness/specificitydenotestheissueofhowfar-reachingobligationsinaninteractionsituationaretobe.Shouldtheobligationsbenarrowandspecific,orshouldtheybeextensiveanddiffuse?3.Universalism/particularismpointstotheproblemofwhetherevaluationofothersinaninteractionsituationistoapplytoallactors,orshouldall

actorsbeassessedbythesamestandards?4.Achievement/ascriptiondealswiththeissueofhowtoassessanactor,whetherbyperformanceorbyinbornqualities,suchassex,age,race,andfamilystatus.Shouldanactortreatanotherinacertain

waybecauseofachievementsorascriptivequalitiesthatareunrelatedtoperformance?

5.Self-collectivitydenotes

theextenttowhichactionistobeorientedto

self-interestandindividualgoalsortogroupinterestsandgoals.Shouldactorsconsidertheirpersonalorself-relatedgoalsoverthose

orlargecollectivityinwhichtheyareinvolved?這些概念的一部分,如自我一集體后來被從行動體系中刪除。但是,其他一些概念如普通性一特殊性卻具有更重要的意義。不過,模式變量的意圖依然如故,即按兩分法將決策、規(guī)范要求和價(jià)值取向進(jìn)行類別化。然而,在《社會系統(tǒng)》中,帕森斯想把它們視為限制社會系統(tǒng)規(guī)范和人格系統(tǒng)決策的價(jià)值取向。所以,人格和社會系統(tǒng)的結(jié)構(gòu)顯示了文化層面中價(jià)值取向的基本模式。稍后將會看到,這里所暗示的強(qiáng)調(diào)文化模式對調(diào)節(jié)和控制其他行動系統(tǒng)的影響,在其后的著作中會變得更為明顯。Someoftheseconcepts,suchasself-collectivity,werelaterdroppedfromthe

actionscheme,butothers,suchasuniversalism-particularism,assumedgreater

importance.Theintentofthepattern

categorizedichotomiesofdecisions,

variablesremainedthesame,however:tocategorizedichotomiesofdecisions,normativedemands,andvalueorientations.InTheSocialSystem,however,Parsons

wasinclinedtoviewthemasvalue

orientationsthatcircumscribethenormsofthesocialsystemandthedecisions

ofthepersonalitysystem.Thus,the

structureofthepersonalityandsocialsysternsreflectsthedominantpatternsofvalue

orientationsinculture.Thisimplicit

emphasisontheimpactofculturalpatternsonregulatingandcontrollingothersystemsofactionbecameevermoreexplicitinthislaterwork.到1951年,帕森斯已經(jīng)成功建構(gòu)了一個(gè)復(fù)雜的概念體系,該體系強(qiáng)調(diào),社會系統(tǒng)就是互動制度化逐漸穩(wěn)定的過程,其中滲透了人格,并受文化影響。制度化的規(guī)范、角色行動者的決策、文化價(jià)值取向的輪廓都可以被那些反映每一行動組成部分變量特征的概念(模式變量)類型化。By1951,Parsons

hadalreadywovenacomplexconceptual

systemthat

emphasizestheprocess

ofinstitutionalizationofinteractionintostabilizedpatternscalledsocialsystems,whichare

penetratedbypersonalityand

circumscribedbyculture.Theprofileofinstitutionalized

norms,ofdecisionsbyactors

inroles,andofculturalvalueorientationscanbe

typifiedbyconcepts-the

patternvariables-thatcapturethevariablepropertiesineachoftheseaction

components.在建構(gòu)了這一分析大廈以后,帕森斯返回到在《社會行動的結(jié)構(gòu)》中首次提出并主導(dǎo)了后來所有理論分析的問題:社會系統(tǒng)如何生存?換一種更為明確的說法:制度化的互動模式為什么能夠生存?這個(gè)問題提出了系統(tǒng)需求或系統(tǒng)必要條件。顯然,帕森斯關(guān)注的是,系統(tǒng)怎樣解決自身的整合問題。答案是,通過構(gòu)造附加概念,用來說明人格系統(tǒng)和文化系統(tǒng)整合到社會系統(tǒng)中的方式。是這種整合方式保證了規(guī)范的某種凝聚力以及行動者遵守規(guī)范和扮演角色的基本責(zé)任感。圖3-3描繪了帕森斯分析方法的核心思想。Havingbuiltthis

analyticaledifice,Parsonsthenreturnedtoaquestion,

firstraisedinTheStructure

ofSocialAction,thatguidedallhissubsequenttheoreticalformulations:How

dosocialsystemssurvive?Morespecifically,whydo

institutionalizedpatternsofinteractionpersist?Suchquestionsraisetheissue

ofsystemimperativesorrequisites.Parsonswasaskinghowsystems

resolve

theirintegrativeproblems.Theanswerisprovidedbytheelaboration

ofadditionalconceptsthatpointtohowpersonalitysystemsandculture

areintegrated

intothesocialsystem,therebyprovidingsome

degreeofnormative

coherenceandaminimalamountofcommitmentbyactors

toconformto

normsandplayroles.Figure3.3delineatesthekeyideasinParsons'reasoning.人格系統(tǒng)怎樣整合到社會系統(tǒng)并進(jìn)而促進(jìn)均衡?在最抽象的層次上,帕森斯定義了人格系統(tǒng)整合到社會系統(tǒng)的兩種機(jī)制:(1)社會化機(jī)制;(2)社會控制機(jī)制。1.社會化機(jī)制是將文化模式(價(jià)值觀、信仰、語言和其他符號)內(nèi)化到人格系統(tǒng),進(jìn)而制約其需求結(jié)構(gòu)。通過這個(gè)過程,使行動者愿意把動機(jī)的能量施加于角色中(因而愿意信守規(guī)范),并給予角色必需的互動技能和其他技能。社會化機(jī)制的另一種功能是提供穩(wěn)定的和安全的人際紐帶,這些紐帶能夠減輕與獲得適當(dāng)?shù)膭訖C(jī)和技能相聯(lián)系的緊張和焦慮。2.社會控制機(jī)制涉及地位一角色在社會系統(tǒng)中被組織起來以減少緊張和越軌的方式,包括許多特定的控制機(jī)制:(a)制度化。制度化能夠能使角色期望清楚明了,與此同時(shí),在時(shí)間和空間上分離那些相互沖突的期望。(b)人際的處罰與友好。行動者巧妙地運(yùn)用這種機(jī)制來保持相互的一致。(c)儀式活動。行動者運(yùn)用儀式活動來消除具有破壞性的緊張的來源,并加強(qiáng)主導(dǎo)文化模式的地位。(d)安全閥結(jié)構(gòu)。普遍存在的越軌傾向通過這種結(jié)構(gòu)從時(shí)間上和空間上與正式制度模式分離開來。(e)再整合結(jié)構(gòu)。專門負(fù)責(zé)使越軌傾向回到正軌。(f)把強(qiáng)制力(及其運(yùn)用)制度化為系統(tǒng)的一部分。Justhowarepersonalitysystemsintegrated

intothesocialsystem,thereby

promotingequilibrium?Atthemostabstractlevel,

Parsonsconceptualizedtwomechanismsthatintegratethepersonalityintothesocialsystem:

(1)

mechanismsthat

ofsocializationand(2)mechanismsofsocialcontrol.1.Mechanismsofsocializationarethemeansthroughwhichculturalpatterns-values,beliefs,language,

andothersymbols--areinternalizedinto

thepersonalitysystem,therebycircumscribingitsneedstructure.

Throughthisprocess,actorsare

madewillingtodepositmotivational

energyinroles(thereby

willingtoconformtonorms)andaregiventheinterpersonalandother

skillsnecessaryforplayingroles.Anotherfunctionofsocializationmechanismsistoprovidestableandsecureinterpersonaltiesthatalleviatemuchofthestrain,anxiety,andtensionassociated

withacquiringpropermotivesandskills.2.Mechanismsofsocialcontrolinvolvethosewaysinwhichstatus-rolesareorganizedinsocialsystemstoreducestrainanddeviance.Thereare

numerousspecificcontrolmechanisms,including(a)institutionalization,

whichmakesroleexpectationsclearandunambiguouswhilesegregating

intimeandspacecontradictoryexpectations;(b)interpersonalsanctions

andgestures,whichactorssubtlyemploytomutuallysanctionconformity;(c)ritualactivities,inwhichactorsactoutsymbolicallysourcesof

strainthatcouldprovedisruptivewhiletheyreinforcedominantcultural

patterns;(d)safety-valvestructures,inwhichpervasivedeviantpropensi-

tiesaresegregatedintimeandspacefromnormalinstitutionalpatterns;

(e)reintegrationstructures,whicharespecificallychargedwithbringing

devianttendenciesbackintoline;and,finally(f)institutionalizingthe

capacitytouseforceandcoercionintosomesectorsofasystem.這兩種機(jī)制解決了社會系統(tǒng)長久面臨的問題之一:整合問題。社會系統(tǒng)面臨的另一個(gè)重大問題是文化模式如何對社會秩序和均衡的維持發(fā)生作用。帕森斯又一次在最抽象的層次上形象地描述了兩種方式:(1)文化的某些部分,如語言,是互動得以發(fā)生的必要的、基本的資源。沒有符號資源,就不可能有交流和互動。因此,只有通過向行動者提供公共文化資源,互動才成為可能。(2)文化對互動的另一個(gè)影響,與上一個(gè)影響相關(guān)但又有所不同:即文化模式中的觀念(如價(jià)值觀、信仰、意識形態(tài)等)。這些觀念可以為行動者提供一些大眾觀點(diǎn),或用托馬斯(W.I.Thomas)的話來說,共同的“情境定義”,這些共同的理解使互動得以在阻力最小的情況下順利地進(jìn)行。自然,帕森斯也認(rèn)為,社會化和社會控制機(jī)制并不總是成功的,因此,才會有越軌和社會變遷。不過,很顯然,在《社會系統(tǒng)》中形成的這些概念,探討的重點(diǎn)是維持整合即維持社會系統(tǒng)均衡的過程。Thesetwomechanismsresolveoneofthemostpersistentintegrativeproblemsfacingsocialsystems.Theother

majorintegrativeproblemfacingsocial

systemsconcernshowculturalpatterns

ofcontributetothemaintenanceofsocial

orderandequilibrium.Againatmost

abstractlevel,

Parsonsvisualizedthe

two

waysinwhichthisoccurs:(1)Some

componentsofculture,suchaslanguage,

arebasic

resources

resources

necessaryfor

interactiontooccur.

Withoutsymbolicresourcescommunicationand,hence,interactionwouldnotbepossible.Thus,byprovidingcommonresourcesforallactors,interactionismadeposiblebyculture.(2)Arelatedbutstillseparableinfluenceofcultureoninteractionisexertedthroughthesubstanceofideascontainedinculturalpatterns

(values,beliefs,ideology,andso

forth).Theseideascanprovideactorswith

common

viewpoints,personalontologies,or

toborrowfrom

W.I.Thomas,acommon"definitionofthesituation."Thesecommonmeaningsallowinteractiontoproceedsmoothlywithminimaldisruption.Naturally,Parsons

acknowledgedthatthemechanismsofsocializationand

socialcontrol

arenot

alwayssuccessful,henceallowingdevianceandsocial

changeto

occur.ButclearlytheconceptsdevelopedinTheSocialSystem

weightanalysisinthedirection

oflookingforprocessesthatmaintaintheintegrationand,byimplication,theequilibriumofsocialsystems.向功能強(qiáng)制主義轉(zhuǎn)變

在《社會系統(tǒng)》出版之后不久,帕森斯、貝爾斯和希爾斯合作出版了《行動理論文集》。功能強(qiáng)制的概念在這一著作中成為了一般行動理論的核心。1956年,帕森斯和斯梅爾塞合著的《經(jīng)濟(jì)與社會》一書出版,在該書中,行動理論被表述為:結(jié)構(gòu)的功能在于滿足系統(tǒng)的必要條件。THETRANSITION

ToFUNCTIONALIMPERATIVISM

IncollaborationwithRobertBalesandEdwardShils,Parsonspublished

WorkingPapersintheTheoryof

ActionshortlyafterTheSocialSystem.

InWorking

Papers,conceptions

offunctionalimperativesdominatedthegeneraltheoryof

action,andby1956,

withParsonsandNeilSmelser'spublicationofEconomy

andSociety,thefunctionsofstructuresformeetingsystemrequisites

werewell

institutionalizedintoactiontheory.在這一時(shí)期中,行動系統(tǒng)被概念化為四個(gè)生存問題或者說四種生存的必要條件:適應(yīng)、目標(biāo)獲取、整合和模式維持?!斑m應(yīng)”指確保從環(huán)境中獲取足夠的資源,然后在整個(gè)系統(tǒng)中進(jìn)行分配?!澳繕?biāo)獲取”指在系統(tǒng)目標(biāo)中建立次序級別,并調(diào)動系統(tǒng)的資源以獲得這些目標(biāo)?!罢稀敝负献骱捅3窒到y(tǒng)單位之間的相互關(guān)系?!澳J骄S持”圍繞著兩個(gè)相關(guān)的問題:模式維持和緊張的處理。模式維持指怎樣確保社會系統(tǒng)的行動者顯示合適的個(gè)性(動機(jī)、需求、角色扮演技巧等)等問題。緊張的處理則是指應(yīng)付處于社會系統(tǒng)中的行動者的內(nèi)部緊張。

Duringthisperiod,systemofactionwereconceptualizedtohavefoursurvivalproblems,orrequisites:adaptation,goalattainment,integration,andlatency.Adaptationinvolvessecuring

sufficientresourcesfromtheenvironment

andthendistributingthesethroughout

thesystem.Goalattainmentrefersto

establishingprioritiesamongsystemgoalsandmobilizingsystemresourcesfortheirattainment.Integration

denotescoordinatingandmaintaining

viableinter-relationshipsamongsystemunits.Latencyembracetworelatedproblems:paternmaintenanceandtensionmanagement.Patternmaintenancepertainstohowtoensurethatactorsinthesocialsystemdisplaytheappropriatecharacteristics(motives,needs,role-playing,andsoforth).Tensionmanagementconcerns

dealingwiththeinternaltensionsandstrainsofactorsinthesocialsystem.所有這些功能必要條件在《社會系統(tǒng)》一書中都是含混不清的,都被置于整合這一總括性問題之下。在帕森斯討論行動系統(tǒng)內(nèi)部和行動系統(tǒng)之間的整合時(shí),關(guān)于獲取工具(適應(yīng))、定位與目標(biāo)搜尋(目標(biāo)獲取)、社會化和社會控制(維模)等問題都是明顯的。所以,四個(gè)功能必要條件(縮寫為A,G,I,L)的發(fā)展并沒有嚴(yán)重背離帕森斯的早期著作,而是對他《社會系統(tǒng)》中模糊概念的精心闡釋。Alltheserequisites

wereimplicitinTheSocialSystem,buttheytendedto

beviewed

underthegeneralproblemofintegration

.InParsons'discussionof

integration

withinandbetweenactionsystems,problemsofsecuringfacilities

(adaptation),allocationandgoalseeking(goalattainment),andsocializationandsocialcontrol(latency)wereconspicuous.Thus,thedevelopmentofthe

fourfunctionalrequisites--abbreviatedA,G,I,andL--wasnotsomucharadicaldeparturefromearlier

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