化學(xué)工程專業(yè)英語課文翻譯

{教育管理}化學(xué)工程專業(yè)英語課文翻譯Unit1ChemicalIndustry化學(xué)工業(yè)1.OriginsoftheChemicalIndustryAlthoughtheuseofchemicalsdatesbacktotheancientcivilizations,theevolutionofwhatweknowasthemodernchemicalindustrystartedmuchmorerecently.ItmaybeconsideredtohavebegunduringtheIndustrialRevolution,about1800,anddevelopedtoprovidechemicalsroeusebyotherindustries.Examplesarealkaliforsoapmaking,bleachingpowderforcotton,andsilicaandsodiumcarbonateforglassmaking.Itwillbenotedthattheseareallinorganicchemicals.Theorganicchemicalsindustrystartedinthe1860swiththeexploitationofWilliamHenryPerkin’sdiscoveryifthefirstsyntheticdyestuff—mauve.AtthestartofthetwentiethcenturytheemphasisonresearchontheappliedaspectsofchemistryinGermanyhadpaidoffhandsomely,andby1914hadresultedintheGermanchemicalindustryhaving75%oftheworldmarketinchemicals.ThiswasbasedonthediscoveryofnewdyestuffsplusthedevelopmentofboththecontactprocessforsulphuricacidandtheHaberprocessforammonia.Thelaterrequiredamajortechnologicalbreakthroughthatofbeingabletocarryoutchemicalreactionsunderconditionsofveryhighpressureforthefirsttime.TheexperiencegainedwiththiswastostandGermanyingoodstead,particularlywiththerapidlyincreaseddemandfornitrogen-basedpounds(ammoniumsaltsforfertilizersandnitricacidforexplosivesmanufacture)withtheoutbreakofworldwarⅠin1914.Thisinitiatedprofoundchangeswhichcontinuedduringtheinter-waryears(1918-1939).1．化學(xué)工業(yè)的起源（才開始的）。可以認為它起源于工業(yè)革命其間，大約在1800年，并發(fā)展成為為其它工業(yè)部門提供化學(xué)原料的產(chǎn)業(yè)。比如制肥皂所用的堿，棉布生產(chǎn)所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造業(yè)所用的硅及Na2CO3.我們會注意到所有這些都是無機物。有機化學(xué)工業(yè)的開始是在十九世紀六十年代以WilliamHenryPerkin發(fā)現(xiàn)第一種合成染料—苯胺紫并加以開發(fā)利用為標(biāo)志的。20世紀初，德國花費大量資金用于實用化學(xué)方面的重點研究，到1914年，德國的化學(xué)工業(yè)在世界化學(xué)產(chǎn)品市場上占有75%而后者需要較大的技術(shù)突破使得化學(xué)反應(yīng)第一次可以在非常高的壓力條件下進行。這方面所取得的成績對德國很有幫助。特別是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆發(fā)，對以氮為基礎(chǔ)的化合物的需求飛速增長。這種深刻的改變一直持續(xù)到戰(zhàn)后（1918-1939）。datebaketo/from:回溯到dated:過時的，陳舊的standsb.ingoodstead:對。。。很有幫助Since1940thechemicalindustryhasgrownataremarkablerate,althoughthishasslowedsignificantlyinrecentyears.Thelion’sshareofthisgrowthhasbeenintheorganicchemicalssectorduetothedevelopmentandgrowthofthepetrochemicalsareasince1950s.Theexplosivesgrowthinpetrochemicalsinthe1960sand1970swaslargelyduetotheenormousincreaseindemandforsyntheticpolymerssuchaspolyethylene,polypropylene,nylon,polyestersandepoxyresins.19401950年以來石油化學(xué)領(lǐng)域的研究和開發(fā)大部分在有機化學(xué)方面取得。石油化工在60年代和70龍、聚脂和環(huán)氧樹脂的需求巨大增加。Thechemicalindustrytodayisaverydiversesectorofmanufacturingindustry,withinwhichitplaysacentralrole.Itmakesthousandsofdifferentchemicalswhichthegeneralpubliconlyusuallyencounterasendorconsumerproducts.Theseproductsarepurchasedbecausetheyhavetherequiredpropertieswhichmakethemsuitableforsomeparticularapplication,e.g.anon-stickcoatingforpansoraweedkiller.Thuschemicalsareultimatelysoldfortheeffectsthattheyproduce.今天的化學(xué)工業(yè)已經(jīng)是制造業(yè)中有著許多分支的部門，并且在制造業(yè)中起著核心的作用。它生產(chǎn)了數(shù)千種不同的化學(xué)產(chǎn)品，而人們通常只接觸到終端產(chǎn)品或消費品。這些產(chǎn)品被購買是因為他們具有某些性質(zhì)適合（人們）的一些特別的用途，例如，用于盆的不粘涂層或一種殺蟲劑。這些化學(xué)產(chǎn)品歸根到底是由于它們能產(chǎn)生的作用而被購買的。2.DefinitionoftheChemicalIndustryAttheturnofthecenturytherewouldhavebeenlittledifficultyindefiningwhatconstitutedthechemicalindustrysinceonlyaverylimitedrangeofproductswasmanufacturedandthesewereclearlychemicals,e.g.,alkali,sulphuricacid.Atpresent,however,manyintermediatestoproductsproduced,fromrawmaterialslikecrudeoilthrough(insomecases)manyintermediatestoproductswhichmaybeuseddirectlyasconsumergoods,orreadilyconvertedintothem.Thedifficultyconesindecidingatwhichpointinthissequencetheparticularoperationceasestobepartofthechemicalindustry’ssphereofactivities.Toconsideraspecificexampletoillustratethisdilemma,emulsionpaintsmaycontainpoly(vinylchloride)/poly(vinylacetate).Clearly,synthesisofvinylchloride(oracetate)anditspolymerizationarechemicalactivities.However,ifformulationandmixingofthepaint,includingthepolymer,iscarriedoutbyabranchofthemultinationalchemicalpanywhichmanufacturedtheingredients,isthisstillpartofthechemicalindustryofdoesitmowbelonginthedecoratingindustry?2．化學(xué)工業(yè)的定義在本世紀初，要定義什么是化學(xué)工業(yè)是不太困難的，因為那時所生產(chǎn)的化學(xué)品是很有限的，而且是非常清楚的化學(xué)品，例如，燒堿，硫酸。然而現(xiàn)在有數(shù)千種化學(xué)產(chǎn)品被生產(chǎn)，從一些原料物質(zhì)像用于制備許多的半成品的石油，到可以直接作為消費品或很容易轉(zhuǎn)化為消費品的商品。困難在于如何決定在一些特殊的生產(chǎn)過程中哪一個環(huán)節(jié)不再屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動范疇。舉一個特殊的例子來描述一下這種困境。乳劑漆含有聚氯乙烯/聚醋酸乙烯。顯然，氯乙烯（或醋酸乙烯）的合成以及聚合是化學(xué)活動。然而，如果這種漆，包括高聚物，它的配制和混合是由一家制造配料的跨國化學(xué)公司完成的話，那它仍然是屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)呢還是應(yīng)當(dāng)歸屬于裝飾工業(yè)中去呢？Itisthereforeapparentthat,becauseofitsdiversityofoperationsandcloselinksinmanyareaswithotherindustries,thereisnosimpledefinitionofthechemicalindustry.Insteadeachofficialbodywhichcollectsandpublishesstatisticsonmanufacturingindustrywillhaveitsdefinitionastowhichoperationsareclassifiedasthechemicalindustry.Itisimportanttobearthisinmindwhenparingstatisticalinformationwhichisderivedfromseveralsources.因此，很明顯，由于化學(xué)工業(yè)經(jīng)營的種類很多并在很多領(lǐng)域與其它工業(yè)有密切的聯(lián)系，所以不能對它下一個簡單的定義。相反的每一個收集和出版制造工業(yè)統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)的官方機構(gòu)都會對如何屆定3.TheNeedforChemicalIndustryThechemicalindustryisconcernedwithconvertingrawmaterials,suchascrudeoil,firstlyintochemicalintermediatesandthenintoatremendousvarietyofotherchemicals.Thesearethenusedtoproduceconsumerproducts,whichmakeourlivesmorefortableor,insomecasessuchaspharmaceuticalproduces,helptomaintainourwell-beingorevenlifeitself.Ateachstageoftheseoperationsvalueisaddedtotheproduceandprovidedthisaddedexceedstherawmaterialplusprocessingcoststhenaprofitwillbemadeontheoperation.Itistheaimofchemicalindustrytoachievethis.3．對化學(xué)工業(yè)的需要化學(xué)產(chǎn)品。這些產(chǎn)品再被用來生產(chǎn)消費品，這些消費品可以使我們的生活更為舒適或者作藥物維持人類的健康或生命。在生產(chǎn)過程的每一個階段，都有價值加到產(chǎn)品上面，只要這些附加的價值超過原材料和加工成本之和，這個加工就產(chǎn)生了利潤。而這正是化學(xué)工業(yè)要達到的目的。Itmayseemstrangeintextbookthisonetoposethequestion“doweneedachemicalindustry?”Howevertryingtoanswerthisquestionwillprovide(ⅰ)anindicationoftherangeofthechemicalindⅱ)itsinfluenceonourlivesineverydayterms,and(ⅲ)howgreatissociety’sneedforachemicalindustry.Ourapproachinansweringthequestionwillbetoconsidertheindustry’scontributiontomeetingandsatisfyingourmajorneeds.Whatarethese?Clearlyfood(anddrink)andhealthareparamount.Otherwhichweshallconsiderintheirturnareclothingand(briefly)shelter,leisureandtransport.這樣一個問題是不是有點奇怪呢？然而，1）化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動范圍，（2）化學(xué)工業(yè)對我們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹挠绊懀?）社會對化學(xué)工業(yè)的需求有多大。在回答這些問題的時候我們的思路將要考慮化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足和改善我們的主要需求方面所做的貢獻。是些什么需求呢？很顯然，食物和健康是放在第一位的。其它我們要考慮的按順序是衣物、住所、休閑和旅行。(1)Food.Thechemicalindustrymakesamajorcontributiontofoodproductioninatleastthreeways.Firstly,bymakingavailablelargequantitiesofartificialfertilizerswhichareusedtoreplacetheelements(mainlynitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium)whichareremovedasnutrientsbythegrowingcropsduringmodernintensivefarming.Secondly,bymanufacturingcropprotectionchemicals,i.e.,pesticides,whichmarkedlyreducetheproportionofthecropsconsumedbypests.Thirdly,byproducingveterinaryproductswhichprotectlivestockfromdiseaseorcuretheirinfections.(1)食物。化學(xué)工業(yè)對糧食生產(chǎn)所做的巨大貢獻至少有三個方面。第一，提供大量可以獲得的肥料以補充由于密集耕作被農(nóng)作物生長時所帶走的營養(yǎng)成分。（主要是氮、磷和鉀）。第二，生產(chǎn)農(nóng)作物保護產(chǎn)品，如殺蟲劑，它可以顯著減少害蟲所消耗的糧食數(shù)量。第三，生產(chǎn)獸藥保護家禽免遭疾病或其它感染的侵害。(2)Health.Weareallawareofthemajorcontributionwhichthepharmaceuticalsectoroftheindustryhasmadetohelpkeepusallhealthy,e.g.bycuringbacterialinfectionswithantibiotics,andevenextendinglifeitself,e.g.?–blockerstolowerbloodpressure.（2）健康。我們都很了解化學(xué)工業(yè)中制藥這一塊在維護我們的身體健康甚至延長壽命方面所做出的巨大貢獻，例如，用抗生素治療細菌感染，用β-抗血栓降低血壓。(3)Clothing.Theimprovementinpropertiesofmodernsyntheticfibersoverthetraditionalclothingmaterials(e.g.cottonandwool)hasbeenquiteremarkable.Thusshirts,dressesandsuitsmadefrompolyesterslikeTeryleneandpolyamideslikeNylonarecrease-resistant,machine-washable,anddrip-dryornon-iron.Theyarealsocheaperthannaturalmaterials.酰胺如尼龍所制作的T恤、上衣、襯衫抗皺、可機洗，曬干自挺或免燙，也比天然面料便宜。Paralleldevelopmentsinthediscoveryofmodernsyntheticdyesandthetechnologyto“bond”themtothefiberhasresultedinatremendousincreaseinthevarietyofcolorsavailabletothefashiondesigner.Indeedtheynowspanalmosteverycolorandhueofthevisiblespectrum.Indeedifasuitableshadeisnotavailable,structuralmodificationofanexistingdyetoachievethiscanreadilybecarriedout,providedthereisasatisfactorymarketfortheproduct.與此同時，現(xiàn)代合成染料開發(fā)和染色技術(shù)的改善使得時裝設(shè)計師們有大量的色彩可以利用。的確他們幾乎利用了可見光譜中所有的色調(diào)和色素。事實上如果某種顏色沒有現(xiàn)成的，只要這種產(chǎn)品確有市場，就可以很容易地通過對現(xiàn)有的色彩進行結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整而獲得。Othermajoradvancesinthisspherehavebeenincolor-fastness,i.e.,resistancetothedyebeingwashedoutwhenthegarmentiscleaned.這一領(lǐng)域中另一些重要進展是不褪色，即在洗滌衣物時染料不會被洗掉。(4)Shelter,leisureandtransport.Intermsofshelterthecontributionofmodernsyntheticpolymershasbeensubstantial.Plasticsaretendingtoreplacetraditionalbuildingmaterialslikewoodbecausetheyarelighter,maintenance-free(i.e.theyareresistanttoweatheringanddonotneedpainting).Otherpolymers,e.g.urea-formaldehydeandpolyurethanes,areimportantinsulatingmaterialsforreducingheatlossesandhencereducingenergyusage.（4）住所，休閑和旅游。講到住所方面現(xiàn)代合成高聚物的貢獻是巨大的。塑料正在取代像木材一類的傳統(tǒng)建筑材料，因為它們更輕，免維護（即它們可以抵抗風(fēng)化，不需油漆）。另一些高聚物，比如，脲甲醛和聚脲，是非常重要的絕緣材料可以減少熱量損失因而減少能量損耗。Plasticsandpolymershavemadeaconsiderableimpactonleisureactivitieswithapplicationsrangingfromall-weatherartificialsurfacesforathletictracks,footballpitchesandtenniscourtstonylonstringsforracquetsanditemslikegolfballsandfootballsmadeentirelyfromsyntheticmaterials.球的經(jīng)緯線，到球拍的尼龍線還有高爾夫球的元件，還有制造足球的合成材料。Likewisethechemicalindustry’scontributiontotransportovertheyearshasledtomajorimprovements.Thusdevelopmentofimprovedadditiveslikeanti-oxidantsandviscosityindeximprovesforengineoilhasenabledroutineservicingintervalstoincreasefrom3000to6000to12000miles.Researchanddevelopmentworkhasalsoresultedinimprovedlubricatingoilsandgreases,andbetterbrakefluids.Yetagainthecontributionofpolymersandplasticshasbeenverystrikingwiththeproportionofthetotalautomobilederivedfromthesematerials—dashboard,steeringwheel,seatpaddingandcoveringetc.—nowexceeding40%.動機油粘度指數(shù)改進使汽車日產(chǎn)維修期限從3000英里延長到6000英里再到12000作還改進了潤滑油和油脂的性能，并得到了更好的剎車油。塑料和高聚物對整個汽車業(yè)的貢獻的比例是驚人的，源于這些材料—擋板，輪胎，坐墊和涂層等等—超過40%。Soitisquiteapparentevenfromabrieflookatthechemicalindustry’scontributiontomeetingourmajorneedsthatlifeintheworldwouldbeverydifferentwithouttheproductsoftheindustry.Indeedthelevelofacountry’sdevelopmentmaybejudgedbytheproductionlevelandsophisticationofitschemicalindustry.產(chǎn)品人類社會的生活將會多么困難。事實上，一個國家的發(fā)展水平可以通過其化學(xué)工業(yè)的生產(chǎn)水平和精細程度來加以判斷。4.ResearchandDevelopment(R&D)inChemicalIndustriesOneofthemainreasonsfortherapidgrowthofthechemicalindustryinthedevelopedworldhasbeenitsgreatmitmentto,andinvestmentinresearchanddevelopment(R&D).Atypicalfigureis5%ofsalesine,withthisfigurebeingalmostdoubledforthemostresearchintensivesector,pharmaceuticals.Itisimportanttoemphasizethatwearequotingpercentagesherenotofprofitsbutofsalesine,i.e.thetotalmoneyreceived,whichhastopayforrawmaterials,overheads,staffsalaries,etc.aswell.Inthepastthistremendousinvestmenthaspaidoffwell,leadingtomanyusefulandvaluableproductsbeingintroducedtothemarket.Examplesincludesyntheticpolymerslikenylonsandpolyesters,anddrugsandpesticides.Althoughthenumberofnewproductsintroducedtothemarkethasdeclinedsignificantlyinrecentyears,andintimesofrecessiontheresearchdepartmentisusuallyoneofthefirsttosuffercutbacks,themitmenttoR&Dremainsataveryhighlevel.4．化學(xué)工業(yè)的研究和開發(fā)。銷售收入的5%利潤而是指銷售收入，也就是說全部回收的錢，其中包括要付出原材料費，企業(yè)管理費，員工工資等等。過去這筆巨大的投資支付得很好，使得許多有用的和有價值的產(chǎn)品被投放市場，包括一些合成高聚物如尼龍和聚脂，藥品和殺蟲劑。盡管近年來進入市場的新產(chǎn)品大為減少，而且在衰退時期研究部門通常是最先被裁減的部門，在研究和開發(fā)方面的投資仍然保持在較高的水平。Thechemicalindustryisaveryhightechnologyindustrywhichtakesfulladvantageofthelatestadvancesinelectronicsandengineering.Computersareverywidelyusedforallsortsofapplications,fromautomaticcontrolofchemicalplants,tomolecularmodelingofstructuresofnewpounds,tothecontrolofanalyticalinstrumentsinthelaboratory.化學(xué)工業(yè)是高技術(shù)工業(yè)，它需要利用電子學(xué)和工程學(xué)的最新成果。計算機被廣泛應(yīng)用，從化工廠的自動控制，到新化合物結(jié)構(gòu)的分子模擬，再到實驗室分析儀器的控制。Individualmanufacturingplantshavecapacitiesrangingfromjustafewtonesperyearinthefinechemicalsareatotherealgiantsinthefertilizerandpetrochemicalsectorswhichrangeupto500,000tonnes.Thelatterrequiresenormouscapitalinvestment,sinceasingleplantofthissizecannowcost$520million!This,coupledwiththewidespreaduseofautomaticcontrolequipment,helpstoexplainwhythechemicalindustryiscapital-ratherthanlabor-intensive.一個制造廠的生產(chǎn)量很不一樣，精細化工領(lǐng)域每年只有幾噸，而巨型企業(yè)如化肥廠和石油化工廠有可能高達500,0002億5千萬美元，再加上自動控制設(shè)備的普遍應(yīng)用，就不難解釋為什么化工廠是資金密集型企業(yè)而不是勞動力密集型企業(yè)。Themajorchemicalpaniesaretrulymultinationalandoperatetheirsalesandmarketingactivitiesinmostofthecountriesoftheworld,andtheyalsohavemanufacturingunitsinanumberofcountries.Thisinternationaloutlookforoperations,orglobalization,isagrowingtrendwithinthechemicalindustry,withpaniesexpandingtheiractivitieseitherbyerectingmanufacturingunitsinothercountriesorbytakingoverpanieswhicharealreadyoperatingthere.大部分化學(xué)公司是真正的跨國公司，他們在世界上的許多國家進行銷售和開發(fā)市場，他們在許多國家都有制造廠。這種國際間的合作理念，或全球一體化，是化學(xué)工業(yè)中發(fā)展的趨勢。大公司通過在別的國家建造制造廠或者是收購已有的工廠進行擴張。Unit2ResearchandDevelopment研究和開發(fā)Researchanddevelopment,orR&Dasitismonlyreferredto,isanactivitywhichiscarriedoutbyallsectorsofmanufacturingindustrybutitsextentvariesconsiderably,aswewillseeshortly.Letusfirstunderstand,oratleastgetafeelfor,whatthetermsmean.Althoughthedistinctionbetweenresearchanddevelopmentisnotalwaysclear-cut,andthereisoftenconsiderableoverlap,wewillattempttoseparatethem.Insimpletermsresearchcanbethoughtofastheactivitywhichproducesnewideasandknowledgewhereasdevelopmentisputtingthoseideasintopracticeasnewprocessandproducts.Toillustratethiswithanexample,predictingthestructureofanewmoleculewhichwouldhaveaspecificbiologicalactivityandsynthesizingitcouldbeseenasresearchwhereastestingitanddevelopingittothepointwhereitcouldbemarketedasanewdrugcouldbedescribedasthedevelopmentpart.R&D生新思想和新知識的活動，而開發(fā)則是把這些思想貫徹到實踐中得到新工藝和新產(chǎn)品的行為。而測試它并把它發(fā)展到可以作為一種新藥推向市場這一階段則看作開發(fā)部分。1.FundamentalResearchandAppliedResearchInindustrytheprimaryreasonforcartingoutR&Diseconomicandistostrengthenandimprovethepany’spositionandprofitability.ThepurposeofR&Distogenerateandprovideinformationandknowledgetoreduceuncertainty,solveproblemsandtoprovidebetterdataonwhichmanagementcanbasedecisions.Specificprojectscoverawiderangeofactivitiesandtimescales,fromafewmonthsto20years.1．基礎(chǔ)研究和應(yīng)用研究司的利潤。R&D的目的是做出并提供信息和知識以減低不確定性，解決問題，以及向管理層提供更好的數(shù)據(jù)以便他們能據(jù)此做出決定。特別的項目涵蓋很大的活動范圍和時間范圍，從幾個月到20年。WecanpickoutanumberofareasofR&Dactivityinthefollowingparagraphsbutifweweretostartwiththosewhichweretospringtothemindoftheacademic,ratherthantheindustrial,chemistthenthesewouldbebasic,fundamental(background)orexploratoryresearchandthesynthesisofnewpounds.Thisisalsolabeled“blueskies”research.我們可以在后面的段落里舉出大量的R&D不是工業(yè)化學(xué)家的頭腦，這就是基礎(chǔ)的或探索性的研究Fundamentalresearchistypicallyassociatedwithuniversityresearch.Itmaybecarriedoutforitsownintrinsicinterestanditwilladdtothetotalknowledgebasebutnoimmediateapplicationsofitinthe“realworld”wellbeapparent.Notethatitwillprovideavaluabletrainingindefiningandsolvingproblems,i.e.researchmethodologyfortheresearchstudentwhocarriesitoutundersupervision.However,later“spinoffs”fromsuchworkcanleadtousefulapplications.Thusphysicistsclaimthatbutforthestudyanddevelopmentofquantumtheorywemightnothavehadputersandnuclearpower.However,totakeaspecificallychemicalexample,generalstudiesonabroadareasuchashydrocarbonoxidationmightprovideinformationwhichwouldbeusefulinmorespecificareassuchascyclohexaneoxidationfortheproductionofnylonintermediates.種研究能夠拓寬知識范圍，但在現(xiàn)實世界中的直接應(yīng)用可能性是很小的。請注意，這種以內(nèi)就在提出和解決問題方面提供了極有價值的訓(xùn)練，比如，在指導(dǎo)下完成研究工作的學(xué)生所接受的研究隨后也能帶來可觀的使用價值。舉一個特殊的化學(xué)方面的例子吧，在各個領(lǐng)域如烴的氧化方面所做的廣泛的研究將為一些特殊的領(lǐng)域如環(huán)己烯氧化生成尼龍中間產(chǎn)物提供有用的信息。Aspectsofsynthesiscouldinvolveeitherdevelopingnew,morespecificreagentsforcontrollingparticularfunctionalgroupinterconversions,i.e.developingsyntheticmethodologyorpletesynthesisofanentirelynewmoleculewhichisbiologicallyactive.Althoughtheformerisclearlyfundamentalthelatterenpassesboththisandappliedaspects.Thisterm‘a(chǎn)pplied’hastraditionallybeenmoreassociatedwithresearchoutinindustriallaboratories,sincethisismorefocusedortargeted.Itisaconsequenceoftheworkbeingbusinessdriven.法或完成一些具有生物活性的新分子的合成。盡管前者顯然屬于基礎(chǔ)性研究而后者則包括基礎(chǔ)研究和實用性研究兩部分。所謂“實用性”習(xí)慣上是指與在工業(yè)實驗室完成的研究聯(lián)系在一起的，因為它更具目的性，它是商業(yè)行為驅(qū)動的結(jié)果。Note,however,thattherehasbeenamajorchangeinrecentyearsasacademicinstitutionshaveincreasinglyturnedtoindustryforresearchfunding,withtheresultthatmuchmoreoftheirresearcheffortismowdevotedtomoreappliedresearch.Evenso,inacademiatheemphasisgenerallyisverymuchontheresearchratherthanthedevelopment.費，其結(jié)果就是他們的研究工作越來越多地是致力于實用研究。即使這樣，學(xué)院工作的重點通常還是在于研究而不是開發(fā)。2.TypesofIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentTheappliedormoretargetedtypeofresearchanddevelopmentmonlycarriedoutinindustrycanbeofseveraltypesandwewillbrieflyconsidereach.Theyare:(ⅰ)productdevelopment,(ⅱ)processdevelopment,(ⅲ)processimprovementand(ⅳ)applicationsdevelopment.Evenundertheseheadingsthereareamultitudeofaspectssoonlyatypicalexamplecanbequotedineachcase.Theemphasisoneachofthesewillvaryconsiderablywithinthedifferentsectorsofthechemicalindustry.2．工業(yè)研究和開發(fā)的類型1234）應(yīng)用開發(fā)；每一類下還有許多分支。我們.對每一類舉一個典型的例子來加以說明。在化學(xué)工業(yè)的不同部門內(nèi)每類的工作重點有很大的不同。(1)Productdevelopment.Productdevelopmentincludesnotonlythediscoveryanddevelopmentofanewdrugbutalso,forexample,providinganewlonger-activeanti-oxidantadditivetoanautomobileengineoil.Developmentsuchasthishaveenabledservicingintervalstoincreaseduringthelastdecadefrom3000to6000to9000andnowto12000miles.Notethatmostpurchasersofchemicalsacquirethemfortheeffectsthattheyproducei.e.aspecificuse.Teflon,orpolytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),maybepurchasedbecauseitimpartsanon-sticksurfacetocookingpotsandpans,therebymakingthemeasiertoclean.(1)產(chǎn)品開發(fā)。產(chǎn)品開發(fā)不僅包括一種新藥的發(fā)明和生產(chǎn)，還包括，比如說，給一種汽車發(fā)動機提供更長時效的抗氧化添加劑。這種開發(fā)的產(chǎn)品已經(jīng)使（發(fā)動機）的服務(wù)期限在最近的十年中從3000英里提高到60009000現(xiàn)在已提高到12000化工產(chǎn)品能創(chuàng)造出來的效果，亦即某種特殊的用途。TdflonPTFE因為它能使炒菜鍋、盆表面不粘，易于清洗。(2)Processdevelopment.Processdevelopmentcoversnotonlydevelopingamanufacturingprocessforanentirelynewproductbutalsoanewprocessorrouteforanexistingproduct.Thepushforthelattermayoriginateforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:availabilityofnewtechnology,changeintheavailabilityand/orcostofrawmaterials.Manufactureofvinylchloridemonomerisanexampleofthis.Itsmanufacturingroutehaschangedseveraltimesowingtochangingeconomics,technologyandrawmaterials.Anotherstimulusisamarkedincreaseindemandandhencesalesvolumewhichcanhaveamajoreffectontheeconomicsoftheprocess.Theearlydaysofpenicillinmanufactureaffordagoodexampleofthis.（2）工藝開發(fā)。工業(yè)開發(fā)不僅包括為一種全新的產(chǎn)品設(shè)計一套制造工藝，還包括為現(xiàn)有的產(chǎn)品設(shè)計新的工藝或方案。而要進行后者時可能源于下面的一個或幾個原因：新技術(shù)的利用、原材技術(shù)和原材料的變化改變了好幾次。另一個刺激因素是需求的顯著增加。因而銷售量對生產(chǎn)流程的經(jīng)濟效益有很大影響。Penicillin早期的制造就為此提供了一個很好的例子。TheabilityofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiainbattlewoundsduringtheSecondWorldWar(1939～1945)resultedinanenormousdemandforittobeproducedinquantity.Upuntilthenithadonlybeenproducedinsmallamountsonthesurfaceofthefermentationbrothinmilkbottles!AnenormousR&DeffortjointlyintheU.S.andtheU.K.resultedintwomajorimprovementstotheprocess.FirstlyadifferentstainofthemouldgavemuchbetteryieldsthantheoriginalPenicilliumnotatum.Secondlythemajorprocessdevelopmentwastheintroductionofthedeepsubmergedfermentationprocess.Herethefermentationtakesplacethroughoutthebroth,providedsterileairisconstantly,andvigorously,blownthroughit.Thishasenabledtheprocesstobescaledupenormouslytomodernstainlesssteelfermentershavingacapacityinexcessof50000liters.Itissalutarytonotethatinthefirstworldwar(1914～1919)moresoldiersdiedfromsepticemiaoftheirwoundsthanwereactuallykilledoutrightonthebattlefield!Penicillin能預(yù)防戰(zhàn)爭中因傷口感染引發(fā)的敗血癥，因而在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)（1939-1945）中，penicillin的需求量非常大，需要大量生產(chǎn)。而在那時，penicillin只能用在瓶裝牛奶表面發(fā)酵的方法小量的生產(chǎn)。英國和美國投入了巨大的人力物力聯(lián)合進行研制和開發(fā)，對生產(chǎn)流程做出—第二個重大的流程開發(fā)是引進了深層發(fā)酵過程。只要在培養(yǎng)液中持續(xù)通入大量純化空氣，發(fā)酵就能在所有部位進行。這使生產(chǎn)能力大大地增加，達到現(xiàn)代容量超過5000升的不銹鋼發(fā)酵器。而在第一次世界大戰(zhàn)中，死于傷口感染的士兵比直接死于戰(zhàn)場上的人還要多。注意到這一點不能不讓我們心存感激。Processdevelopmentforanewproductdependsonthingssuchasthescaleonwhichitistobemanufactured,theby-productsformedandtheirremoval/recovery,andrequiredpurity.Datawillbeacquiredduringthisdevelopmentstageusingsemi-technicalplant(upto100literscapacity)whichwillbeinvaluableinthedesignoftheactualmanufacturingplant.Iftheplantistobeaverylargecapacity,continuouslyoperatingone,e.g.petrochemicalorammonia,thenapilotplantwillfirstbebuiltandoperatedtotestouttheprocessandacquiremoredata,thesesemi-technicalorpilotplantswillberequiredfortesting,e.g.,apesticide,orcustomerevaluation,e.g.,anewpolymer.對一個新產(chǎn)品進行開發(fā)要考慮產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)的規(guī)模、產(chǎn)生的副產(chǎn)品以及分離/回收，產(chǎn)品所要求的純100升）獲得的數(shù)據(jù)設(shè)計實際的制造廠是非常寶貴的，例如石油化工或氨的生產(chǎn)。要先建立一個中試車間，運轉(zhuǎn)并測試流程以獲得更多的數(shù)據(jù)。他們需要測試產(chǎn)品的性質(zhì)，如殺蟲劑，或進行消費評估，如一種新的聚合物。Notethatby-productscanhasamajorinfluenceontheeconomicsofachemicalprocess.Phenolmanufactureprovidesastrikingexampleofthis.Theoriginalroute,thebenzenesulphonicacidroute,hasbeeobsoletebecausedemandforitsby-producesodiumsulfite(2.2tons/ltonphenol)hasdriedup.Itsrecoveryanddisposalwillthereforebeanadditionalchargeontheprocess,thusincreasingthecostofthephenol.Incontrastthecumenerouteowesitseconomicadvantageoveralltheotherroutestothestrongdemandfortheby-productacetone(0.6tons/ltonphenol).Thesaleofthisthereforereducesthenetcostofthephenol.注意，副產(chǎn)品對于化學(xué)過程的經(jīng)濟效益也有很大的影響。酚的生產(chǎn)就是一個有代表性的例子。早期的方法，苯磺酸方法，由于它的副產(chǎn)品亞硫酸鈉需求枯竭而變的過時。亞硫酸鈉需回收和廢置成為生產(chǎn)過程附加的費用，增加了生產(chǎn)酚的成本。相反，異丙基苯方法，在經(jīng)濟效益方面優(yōu)于所有其他方法就在于市場對于它的副產(chǎn)品丙酮的迫切需求。丙酮的銷售所得降低了酚的生產(chǎn)成本。Amajorpartoftheprocessdevelopmentactivityforamewplantistominimize,orideallypreventbydesigningout,wasteproductionandhencepossiblepollution.Theeconomicandenvironmentaladvantagesofthisareobvious.對一個新產(chǎn)品進行工藝開發(fā)的一個重要部分是通過設(shè)計把廢品減到最低，或盡可能地防止可能的污染，這樣做帶來的經(jīng)濟利益和對環(huán)境的益處是顯而易見的。Finallyitshouldbenotedthatprocessdevelopmentrequiresabigteameffortbetweenchemists,chemicalengineers,andelectricalandmechanicalengineerstobesuccessful.的協(xié)同合作才能取得成功。（3)Processimprovement.Processimprovementrelatestoprocesseswhicharealreadyoperating.Itmaybeaproblemthathasarisenandstoppedproduction.Inthissituationthereisalotofpressuretofindasolutionassoonaspossiblesothatproductioncanrestart,since‘downtime’costsmoney.（3）工藝改進。工藝改進與正在進行的工藝有關(guān)。它可能出現(xiàn)了某個問題使生產(chǎn)停止。在這種情形下，就面臨著很大的壓力要盡快地解決問題以便生產(chǎn)重新開始，因為故障期耗費資財。downtime:故障期Moremonly,however,processimprovementwillbedirectedatimprovingtheprofitabilityoftheprocess.Thismightbeachievedinanumberofways.Forexample,improvingtheyieldbyoptimizingtheprocess,increasingthecapacitybyintroducinganewcatalyst,orloweringtheenergyrequirementsoftheprocess.AnexampleofthelatterwastheintroductionofturbopressorsintheproductionofammoniabytheHaberprocess.Thisreducedutilitycosts(mainlyelectricity)from$6.66to%0.56pertonofammoniaproduced.Improvingthequalityoftheproduct,byprocessmodification,mayleadtonewmarketsfortheproduct.然而，更為常見的，工藝改進是為了提高生產(chǎn)過程的利潤。這可以通過很多途徑實現(xiàn)。例如通過優(yōu)化流程提高產(chǎn)量，引進新的催化劑提高效能，或降低生產(chǎn)過程所需要的能量?？烧f明后者的一個例子是在生產(chǎn)氨的過程中渦輪壓縮機的引進。這使生產(chǎn)氨的成本（主要是電）從每噸6.66美元下降到0.56美元。通過工藝的改善提高產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量也會為產(chǎn)品打開新的市場。Inrecentyears,however,themostimportantprocessimprovementactivityhasbeentoreducetheenvironmentalimpactoftheprocess,i.e.,topreventtheprocesscausinganypollution.Clearlytherehavebeentwointerlinkeddrivingforcesforthis.Firstly,thepublic’sconcernaboutthesafetyofchemicalsandtheireffectontheenvironment,andthelegislationwhichhasfollowedasaresultofthis.Secondlythecosttothemanufacturerofhavingtotreatwaste(i.e.,materialwhichcannotberecoveredandusedrsold)sothatitcanbesafelydisposedof,saybypumpingintoariver.Thisobviouslyrepresentsachargeontheprocesswhichwillincreasethecostofthechemicalbeingmade.Thepotentialforimprovementbyreducingtheamountofwasteisself-evident.然而，近年來，最重要的工藝改進行為主要是減少生產(chǎn)過程對環(huán)境的影響，亦即防止生產(chǎn)過程所引起的污染。很明顯，有兩個相關(guān)連的因素推動這樣做。第一，公眾對化學(xué)產(chǎn)品的安全性及其對環(huán)境所產(chǎn)生影響的關(guān)注以及由此而制訂出來的法律；第二，生產(chǎn)者必須花錢對廢物進行處理以便它能安全地清除，比如說，排放到河水中。顯然這是生產(chǎn)過程的又一筆費用，它將增加所生產(chǎn)化學(xué)產(chǎn)品的成本。通過減少廢物數(shù)量提高效益其潛能是不言而喻的。Note,however,withaplantwhichhasalreadybeenbuiltandisoperatingthereareusuallyonlyverylimitedphysicalchangeswhichcanbemadetotheplanttoachievetheaboveaims.Hencetheimportance,alreadymentioned,ofeliminatingwasteproductionatthedesignstageofanewplant.Conservingenergyandthusreducingenergycosthasbeenanothermajorpreoccupationinrecentyears.然而，請注意，對于一個已經(jīng)建好并正在運行的工廠來說，只能做一些有限的改變來達到上述目的。因此，上面所提到的減少廢品的重要性應(yīng)在新公廠的設(shè)計階段加以考慮。近年來另一個當(dāng)務(wù)之急是保護能源及降低能源消耗。(4)Applicationsdevelopment.Clearlythediscoveryofnewapplicationsorusesforaproductcanincreaseorprolongitsprofitability.Notonlydoesthisgeneratemoreinebuttheresultingincreasedscaleofproductioncanleadtolowerunitcostsandincreasedprofit.AnexampleisPVCwhoseearlyusesincludedrecordsandplasticraincoats.Applicationswhichcamelaterincludedplasticbagsandparticularlyengineeringusesinpipesandguttering.（4）應(yīng)用開發(fā)。顯然發(fā)掘一個產(chǎn)品新的用處或新的用途能拓寬它的獲利渠道。這不僅能創(chuàng)造更多的收入，而且由于產(chǎn)量的增加使單元生產(chǎn)成本降低，從而使利潤提高。舉例來說，PVC早期是Emphasishasalreadybeenplacedonthefactthatchemicalsareusuallypurchasedfortheeffect,orparticularuse,orapplicationwhichtheyhave.Thisoftenmeansthattherewillbecloseliaisonbetweenthechemicalpanies’technicalsalesrepresentativesandthecustomer,andtheleveloftechnicalsupportforthecustomercanbeamajorfactorinwinningsales.Researchanddevelopmentchemistsprovidethesupportfortheseapplicationsdevelopments.AnexampleisCF3CH3F.ThisisthefirstoftheCFCreplacementsandhasbeendevelopedasaextractingnaturalproductsfromplantmaterials.Innowaywasthisenvisagedwhenthepoundwasfirstbeingmadeforuseasarefrigerantgas,butitclearlyisanexampleofapplicationsdevelopment.我們已經(jīng)強調(diào)了化學(xué)產(chǎn)品是由于它們的效果，或特殊的用途、用處而得以售出這個事實。這就意味著化工產(chǎn)品公司的技術(shù)銷售代表與顧客之間應(yīng)有密切的聯(lián)系。對顧客的技術(shù)支持水平往往是贏CH3CH3F的制造就是一個例子。它最開始是用來做含氟氯烴的替代物作冷凍劑的。然而近來發(fā)現(xiàn)它還可以用作從植物中萃取出來的天然物質(zhì)的溶解劑。當(dāng)它作為制冷劑被制造時，固然沒有預(yù)計到這一點，但它顯然也是應(yīng)用開發(fā)的一個例子。3.VariationsinR&DActivitiesacrosstheChemicalIndustryBoththenatureandamountofR&Dcarriedoutvariessignificantlyacrossthevarioussectorsofthechemicalindustry.Insectorswhichinvolvelargescaleproductionofbasicchemicalsandwherethechemistry,productsandtechnologychangeonlyslowlybecausetheprocessaremature,R&Dexpenditureisatthelowerendoftherangeforthechemicalindustry.Mostofthiswillbedevotedtoprocessimprovementandeffluenttreatment.Examplesincludeammonia,fertilizersandchloralkaliproductionfromtheinorganicside,andbasicpetrochemicalintermediatessuchaethylenefromtheorganicside.3．化工行業(yè)中研究與開發(fā)活動的變化化學(xué)工業(yè)的不同部門所進行的R&D有關(guān)的部門中，化學(xué)產(chǎn)品和技術(shù)變化都很慢，因為流程已很成熟。R&D經(jīng)費支出屬于化工行業(yè)中低的一端，而且大部分的費用是用于過程改進和廢水處理。無機方面的例子有氨、肥料和氯堿的生產(chǎn)，有機方面的如乙烯等一些基礎(chǔ)石油化學(xué)的中間產(chǎn)物。Attheotherendofthescaleliepharmaceuticalsandpesticides(orplantprotectionproducts).Herethereareimmenseandcontinuouseffortstosynthesizenewmoleculeswhichexertthedesired,specificbiologicaleffect.Asinglepanymaygenerate10,000newpoundsforscreeningeachyear.Littlewonderthatsomeindividualpharmaceuticalpany’sannualR&Dexpenditureisnowapproaching$1000million!Expressingthisinadifferentwaytheyspendinexcessof14%ofsalesine(notenotprofits)onR&D.不一樣規(guī)模生產(chǎn)的是藥品和除草劑。人們付出了巨大而持續(xù)的努力以合成能產(chǎn)生所希望的、特殊的生物作用的新分子。一家公司每年可能要合成10,000新化合物以供篩選?？梢韵胂笠恍┽t(yī)藥公司其每年的R&D經(jīng)費支出高達10014%的銷售收入投入在R&D上。Unit3TypicalActivitiesofChemicalEngineers化學(xué)工程師的例行工作Theclassicalroleofthechemicalengineeristotakethediscoveriesmadebythechemistinthelaboratoryanddevelopthemintomoney--making,mercial-scalechemicalprocesses.ThechemistworksintesttubesandParrbombswithverysmallquantitiesofreactantsandproducts(e.g.,100ml),usuallyrunning“batch”,constant-temperatureexperiments.Reactantsareplacedinasmallcontainerinaconstanttemperaturebath.Acatalystisaddedandthereactionsproceedwithtime.Samplesaretakenatappropriateintervalstofollowtheconsumptionofthereactantsandtheproductionofproductsastimeprogresses.化學(xué)過程?；瘜W(xué)家用少量的反應(yīng)物在試管和派式氧彈中反應(yīng)相應(yīng)得到少量的生成物，所進行的通常是間歇性的恒溫下的實驗，反應(yīng)物放在很小的置于恒溫水槽的容器中，加點催化劑，反應(yīng)繼續(xù)進行，隨時間推移，反應(yīng)物被消耗，并有生成物產(chǎn)生，產(chǎn)物在合適的間歇時間獲得。Bycontrast,thechemicalengineertypicallyworkswithmuchlargerquantitiesofmaterialandwithverylarge(andexpensive)equipment.Reactorscanhold1,000gallonsto10,000gallonsormore.Distillationcolumnscanbeover100feethighand10to30feetindiameter.Thecapitalinvestmentforoneprocessunitinachemicalplantmayexceed$100million!以容納1000到10,00010010到30單元流程的投資可能超過1億美元。Thechemicalengineerisofteninvolvedin“scalingup”achemist-developedsmall-scalereactorandseparationsystemtoaverylargemercialplant.Thechemicalengineermustworkcloselywiththechemistinordertounderstandthoroughlythechemistryinvolvedintheprocessandtomakesurethatthechemistgetsthereactionkineticdataandthephysicalpropertydataneededtodesign,operate,andoptimizetheprocess.Thisiswhythechemica