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語言學第四章第1頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二outline4.1Introduction4.2WordClasses
4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach
4.4TheDescriptiveApproach
4.4.1Structuralanalysis
4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar
4.6TransformationalGrammar
4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar
第2頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.1Introduction
Syntax:studyoftheinternalstructuresofsentenceandtherulesforthecombinationofwords.DifferencebetweenmorphologyandsyntaxMorphology:theinternalstructureofwords
Syntax:thecombinationofwords第3頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Syntacticrules(1)a.Thehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirds.b.Theblackbirdsfearthecriesofthehunter.(2)a.Jacklookeduptheword.b.Jacklookedthewordup.(3)*Criesfearthetheofhunterblackbirdsthe.Conclusion:Thestructureofsentencesuchaswordordercanchangethemeaning.Everysentenceisasequenceofwordsbutnoteverysequenceofwordsisasentence.Sentenceformationhasrules,sothatwehavewell/illformedor(un)grammaticalsentences.第4頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.2WordClasses
Nounsarewordsusedtorefertopeople,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomenaandabstractideasasiftheywereallthings.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectivesarewordsthatdescribethething,quality,stateoractionwhichanounrefersto.beautiful,redVerbsarewordsusedtorefertovariousactionsandstatesinvolvingthe“things”inevents.run,walk,seem第5頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Adverbsarewordsthatdescribeoraddtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,anotheradverb,orasentence,andwhichanswersthequestionsintroducedbyhow,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositionsarewordsusedwithnounsinphrasesprovidinginformationabouttime,placeandotherconnectionsinvolvingactionsandthings.第6頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Pronounsarewordswhichmayreplacenounsornounphrases.Conjunctionsarewordsusedtoconnectandindicaterelationshipsbetweeneventsandthings.Articles,Exclamations,Numerals第7頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Thedefinitionsaboveareusefulforidentifyingmostforms,buttheyarenevercompletelyaccurate.Adifferentapproachmightfocusonsomeotherpropertiesofthewordclasses.Forexample,anouncanbedefinedasaformthatcomesafteranarticle(a,anandthe)andcantakeinflectionsforpossessive(-’s)andplural(-s).Ofcourse,notallnouns(rmationandmud)haveallthesecharacteristics.
第8頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二PhrasestructurerulesRepresentation(通過詞性表征句法):ThehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirdsArt+N+V+Art+N+Prep+Art+NTheruleswhichgovernthestructureofphrasesareknownasphrasestructurerulesorrewriterules.Suchrulesallowforthegenerationofgrammaticalsentencesinalanguage.第9頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach
Definition:Anapproachtakenbysomegrammarians,mainlyineighteenth-centuryEngland,wholaydownrulesforthecorrector“proper”useofEnglishbyfollowingLatin.第10頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二(a)Youmustnotsplitinfinitives.(b)Youmustnotendasentencewithapreposition.Toboldlygo.→Togoboldly.Prepositionisnotawordyoucanendasentencewith.(funny)第11頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.4TheDescriptiveApproach
Definition:Anapproachtakenthroughoutthe20thcenturywhichattemptstodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageasitisusedbycollectingsamples.Varioustechniquesmaybeemployed.第12頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.4.1Structuralanalysis
Adescriptiveapproachstudyingthedistributionoflinguisticformsinalanguagebymeansoftestframes,whichcanbesentenceswithemptyslotsinthem.(分布、測試框架、替代、縱聚合關系)(4)The_____makesalotofnoise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)Ihearda_____yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)第13頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二(6)_____makesalotofnoise.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)(7)Ihear_____yesterday.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)第14頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis
(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法)
Languageislinearandhierarchical.Wecananalyzelanguagefromitslargestleveltothesmallestlevel,thatisfromitsconstructiontoitsconstituentsbymeansofsubstitutabilityandexpansion.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.第15頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Theapproachtodividethesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituentsiscalledimmediateconstituentanalysis(IC).第16頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)
hastwowaysofrepresentation:Treediagrambrackets第17頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Treediagram
(8)Themanboughtacar.
第18頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二BracketsBracketscanalsobeusedbutarearguablylesseasytoread.(9)a.[themanboughtacar]b.[[theman][boughtacar]]c.[[[the][man]][[bought][acar]]]d.[[[the][man]][[bought][[a][car]]]]第19頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Merit:SolvingDisambiguityoldmenandwomen
第20頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar
(成分結構語法)Agrammarwhichanalyzessentencesusingonlytheideaofconstituency,whichrevealsahierarchyofstructurallevels.Themainprincipleislabelingandbracketingbasedontheideathatlinguisticunitscanbepartsoflargerconstructionsorcanthemselvesbemadeupofsmallerparts.(binaryandverb-centered)第21頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二
Treediagram
BinaryVerb-centered第22頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二GenerativeRules(早期轉換語法的概念—短語結構語法)
Thesyntaxofalanguageisthenseenasasetofruleswhichgeneratesentencesinthatlanguage.S→NP+VPVP→Vtr.+NPNP→Art+NVtr.→buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.N→man,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Art→a,an,the
第23頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二(12)a.Themanboughtacar.b.Themansoldacar.c.Thewomanrepairedthebicycle.Sentencesgenerated:第24頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二MorecomplexrulesThereisalargenumberofsentencesinEnglishthatsuchrulescannotproduce.Thissetofruleshasverylimitedgenerativepower.Theaboverulesonlydealwithsimplenounphrasesandtransitiveverbs.Theydonotallowustodealwithanypartoftheverbstructuresuchastense,modalsoraspect.第25頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二第26頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Sentencesgenerated:(13)a.Themansellsthecarinthegarage.b.Thewomanwashesthebicycleinthestreet.c.Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.第27頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Merit:SolvingDisambiguity(14)Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.
inthehousearoundthecorner(Recursion,Recursiveness遞歸性)MaryhelpedGeorge.CathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.JohnsaidCathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.第28頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Achildren’srhyme:ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthewomanthatmarriedthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.第29頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二SomeproblemsofCSG:A.LexicalselectionrestrictionWithsimpleconstituentstructurerules,anynouncanbeintroducedinacombinationwithanyverb.Thisdoesnothappeninnaturallanguage.Wecannotsay:(15)*Thebeliefwashedanapple.第30頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二B.Discontinuousness(16)Theboycleanedtheroomup.(17)Thestudentlookedthewordupinthedictionary.C.Relationbetweensentencesthatseemtobecloselyrelatedstructurallyandsemantically(18)a.BrianhitGeorge→b.GeorgewashitbyBrian.
第31頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二
NoamChomsky,(1928--),founderofTransformationalGrammar4.6TransformationalGrammar第32頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Grammar:thereinTransformationalGrammar,
isinthebroadestway,atheoryofgrammarincludingphonologyandsemantics.AlinguistictheoryWeshallonlyfocusonthesyntacticaspectoftransformationalgrammar.第33頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二I.Classicaltheory
Threeparts:phrasestructurerulestransformationalrules,morphophonemicrules.S→NP+VP;simpleactivedeclarativekernelsentences
(短語結構規(guī)則建立在成分結構分析法的基礎之上,但是更加形式化;強調自上而下的生成。)第34頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Atransformationruleisasequenceofsymbolswhichcouldberewrittenconventionallyasdifferentsequence.
passivetransformationNP1+Aux+V+NP2→NP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+NP1(19)a.Theboyhasrepairedthebicycle.b.Thebicyclehasbeenrepairedbytheboy.第35頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Themorphophonemicruleswouldapplytotheoutputofthetransformationalrules.Theirfunctionistoprovidethecorrectmorphologicalshapetothevariouspartsofthestructureandfinallytogivetheappropriatephonologicaldescription.
(公式----言語表達)第36頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二
Treediagram
第37頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二II.Standardtheorycompetenceandperformance(Chapter1)deepstructureandsurfacestructureThedeepstructureofasentenceisitsmostbasicstructurebothsemanticallyandsyntactically.Thesurfacestructureistheformthatpeoplecanactuallysay.Itisfairlyarbitrary.Twosuperficiallysimilarstructuresmayconveyasubstantiallydifferentmessage.第38頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二deepstructureandsurfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:(20)a.Johniseasytoplease.b.Johniseagertoplease.InthefirstsentenceJohnisdoingthepleasing,andinthelatterheisonthereceivingend.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.
第39頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Standardtheory第40頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二DifferentstagesofgenerativegrammarIII.ExtendedStandardTheoryIV.RevisedExtendedStandardTheoryV.GovernmentandBindingTheory(GB)[PrinciplesandParametersApproach(P&P)]VI.MinimalistProgram(MP)第41頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二OtherbranchesofGG:Throughoutthedevelopmentoftransformationalgrammar,Chomskyhasmaintainedthecentralityofsyntax.Thesyntacticcomponentoftransformationalgrammaristhegenerativecore.Othercomponentsareinterpretiveanddependentonthebasicanddeepsyntacticstructure.Noteveryoneagreedwithhimonthispoint.Generativesemantics:givesemanticsthecentralgenerativerole.Casegrammar:seesyntaxascentralbutprefertoworkwith“case”structuresanddependencyrelations.第42頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar(SFG)
Linguistswhoadoptthisviewareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsofstructuresandpatternsthatlanguageshowstothefunctionsthatlanguagefulfillsandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.DifferencefromTG:functionandcontextual,purposefulHalliday’sthreemeta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textualM.A.KHalliday第43頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Ideational
概念功能Ideational:thefunctioninwhichweconceptualizetheworldasarepresentationofexperience.(及物性(動詞)、語態(tài)、)(19)Theboykickedthepost.(Thepostwaskickedbytheboy)(20)Themanlikedthenewhouse.(21)Thechildishomeless.(22)Thegirllaughed.(23)Thevisitorsaid“hello”.(24)Thereisagirloverthere.第44頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二TransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclearparticipantsExampleMaterial物質過程Event(i.e.happening)Action(i.e.doing)Actor(動作者),過程(Process),Goal(目標),(beneficiary/recipient,range/circumstance)Shebuiltthehouse(forthekids)Sheclimbed(themountain)Mental心理過程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者),過程(Process),Phenomenon(現象)ShesawthecarSheforgothisnameShelikedhismusicRelational關系過程Attributive(歸屬)Identifying(識別)Carrier(載體),Attribute(屬性);Token(標記),Value(價值)MaggiewasourleaderMaggiewasstrongBehavioural行為過程Behaver(行為者)ShelaughedVerbal言語Sayer(講話者)SherepliedExistential存在過程Existent(存在物)Therewasabeautifulprincess第45頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二第46頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Interpersonal
人際功能Interpersonal:setupandmaintainsocialandpersonalrelations,includingcommunicationrolessuchasquestionerandrespondent,andexpressthelanguageuser’sownattitudesandcommentsonthecontentofanutterance.(語氣(句型)、情態(tài)、語調)Traditionallydeclarative,interrogativeandimperative第47頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Declarative:giveinformationandperformthefunctionofstatementInterrogative:requestsomethingandperformthefunctionofquestion
Imperative:giveinstructionsandperformthefunctionofcommandsHowever,exactcorrelationbetweenformandfunctiononlyoccursinidealizedsentences.Wecanusedeclarativetoaskquestions,andtoissueinstructions.第48頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Mood(語氣)Demandfor,andofferof,goodsorservicesDemandfor,andofferof,linguisticinformation(27)a.Passthesalt.b.Pleasepassthesalt.c.Canyoupassthesalt?d.Couldyoupossiblypassthesalt?e.Youcouldn’tpossiblypassthesalt,couldyou?Politenessincreases:Themoreindirectthedemand,themorepoliteitisfelttobe.第49頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Textual
語篇功能Textual:enablethespeakerorwritertoconstructatext,andthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromarandomsetofsentences.(主位關系、信息結構(標記理論)、銜接)Wehavetodecidehowtoorderthepartsofthemessagesoas(a)tomakeitcleartoouraudience,and(b)toemphasize,ormakeprominent,theessentialelementsofit.第50頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Informationstructure信息結構
given(old,known)+new(unknown)markedvsunmarked(28)a.Thereisabirdonthetree.(unmarked)b.Abirdisonthetree.(marked)(29)a.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohn.(lesscumbersome)b.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohnenjoystennis.第51頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二thematicrelation
主位關系Theme主位:thefirstconstituent,thestartingpointoftheclause----whatitisgoingtobeabout.Rheme述位:therestoftheclause(30)a.Gasexplosionkilledthousands.b.Thousandswerekilledbygasexplosion.(31)a.Theraincamedown.(unmarked)b.Downcametherain.(marked)第52頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二ThebookisonatableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctionalapproachesconcentratingontextualaspectsfeaturequitehighlyindiscourseanalysisandwewillbereturningtotheminChapter7.第53頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Summary4.1Definition4.2WordClasses(ten:5+5)
4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach
4.4TheDescriptiveApproach
4.4.1StructuralAnalysis(withslots)
4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(tree)4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar(tree,rules,merits,features,problems)
4.6TransformationalGrammar(grammar,classic,standard,stages,otherbranches)
4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar
(ideational,interpersonal,textual)第54頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Exercise1.Definethefollowingterms.syntax,wordclass,prescriptiveapproach,descriptiveapproach,ICanalysis,ultimateconstituent,transformationalgrammar,ideationalfunction,interpersonalfunction,textualfunction2.Drawtwotreediagramsforthefollowingsentencetoshowthedifferentrelationshipofinthecar.Thedogbitthemaninthecar.第55頁,共59頁,2023年,2月20日,星期二Questionsforchapterthree
andchapterfour1.HowmanytypesofmorphemesarethereintheEnglishlanguage?Statewhattheyareandillustratehowtheywork.2.Giveexamplestotellthedifferencebetweenderivationandcompounding.3.Giveexamplestoillustratethedistinctionbetweendeepstructureandsurfacestructure.第56頁,共5
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