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SupplementaryReadingChapter TheWTODisputeSettlementasaModelInternationalTheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)andDisputeSettlementProceduresLastUpdated:TheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)wasestablishedin1995inthefinalround(UruguayRound)oftheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT)negotiations.TheWTOisnotasimpleextensionofGATT,butacompleterecementofitwithadifferentcharacter.TheWTOembodiesthenegotiatedresultsoftheUruguayRoundandisthesuccessortoGATT.TheWTOisresponsibleforenforcingtheGATTagreements,whicharedesignedtoreducebarrierstoworldtrade.DuringthetradenegotiationsglobalrulesforinternationaltradewereimprovedandextendedtomosttradingnationsonanequivalentbasisandresponsibilityforenforcingtheseruleswasentrustedtothenewlycreatedWTO.Additionally,theWTOprovidesproceduresfornegotiatingadditionalreductionsoftradebarriersandforthepromptandeffectivesettlementofdisputesinallareascoveredbythenewworldtradeagreement.TheUruguayRoundestablisheddisputesettlementproceduresfortheWTO.ThiswascalledtheUnderstandingonRulesandProcedureserningtheSettlementofDisputes(DSU).THESTRUCTUREOFTHETheStructureoftheWTOisdominatedbyitshighestauthority,theMinisterialConference,composedofrepresentativesofallWTOmembers,whichisrequiredtomeetatleasteverytwoyearsandwhichcantakedecisiononallmattersunderanyofthemultilaltradeagreements.Theday-to-dayworkoftheWTOiscarriedoutbyanumberofsubsidiarybodies;primarilytheGeneralCouncil,whichisalsocomposedofallWTOmembers,whichisrequiredtoreporttotheMinisterialConference.AswellasconductingitsregularworkonbehalfoftheMinisterialConference,theGeneralCouncilconvenesintwoparticularforms-astheDisputeSettlementBody(DSB),tooverseethedisputesettlementprocedures,andastheTradeReviewBodytoconductregularreviewsofthetradepoliciesofindividualWTOmembers.TheGeneralCouncildelegatesresponsibilitytothreeothermajorbodies:theCouncilforTradeinGoods,theCouncilforTradeinServices,andtheCouncilforTradeRelatedAspectsofInlectualProperty.TheCouncilforTradeinGoodsoverseastheimplementationandfunctioningofalltheagreementscoveringtradeingoods,thoughmanysuchagreementshavetheirownspecificoverseeingbodies.TheothertwoCouncilsareresponsiblefortheirrespectiveWTOagreementsandmayestablishtheirownsubsidiarybodiesasnecessary.TheWTOGeneralCouncilconvenesastheDSBtodealwithdisputesarisingfromanyagreementcontainedintheFinalActoftheUruguayRound.TheDSBissolelyauthorizedtoestablishpanels,adoptpanelandappellatereports,maintainsurveillanceofimplementationorrulingsandmendations,andauthorizeretaliatorymeasureincasesofnonimplementationofTheWTOdisputesettlementmechanismgivesthepossibilityofappealtoeitherpartyinapanelproceeding.AppealsareheardbyastandingAppellateBodyestablishedbytheDSB.ThisAppellateBodyiscomposedofseven swhichbroadlyrepresenttheWTO'smembership.Theyservefouryearterms.arerequiredtobe sofrecognizedstandinginthefieldoflawandinternationaltrade,andcannotbeaffiliatedwithanyernment.TheWTOSecretariat,whichislocatedinGeneva,Switzerland,hasastaffofabout500andisheadedbyaDirectorGeneralandfourDeputyDirectorsGeneral.ItsresponsibilitiesincludetheservicingofWTOdelegatebodieswithrespecttonegotiationsandtheimplementationsofagreements.Ithasaparticularresponsibilitytoprovidetechnicalsupporttodevelocountries,andespeciallytheleastdevelopedcountries.WTOeconomistsandstatisticiansprovidetradeperformanceandysiswhileitslegalstaffassistintheresolutionoftradedisputesinvolvingtheinterpretationofWTOrulesandprecedents.MuchoftheSecretariat'sworkisconcernedwithaccessionnegotiationsfornewmembersandprovidingadvicetoernmentsconsideringmembership.THEDIFFERENCEBETWEENWTOANDTheprincipledifferencesbetweenWTOandGATTGATTwasasetofrules,amultilalagreement,withnoinstitutionalfoundation,onlyasmallassociatedsecretariatwhichhaditsoriginsinthefailedattempttoestablishtheInternationalTradeOrganizationsinthe1940s.TheWTOisapermanentinstitutionwithitsownsecretariat.GATTwasapplieda"provisionalbasis"eventhoughitlastedmorethanfortyyearsandernmentschosetotreatitasapermanentcommitment.TheWTOcommitmentsarefullandGATTrulesappliedtotradeinmerchandisegoods.Inadditiontogoods,theWTOcoverstradeinservicesandtraderelatedaspectsofinternationalproperty.GATTwasamultilalinstrument,bythe1980smanynewagreementshadbeenaddedofaplurilal,thereforeselective,nature.TheagreementswhichconstitutetheWTOarealmostallmultilalandinvolvecommitmentsfortheentiremembership.TheWTOdisputesettlementsystemisfaster,moreautomatic,andlesssusceptibletoblockages,thantheoldGATTsystem.TheimplementationofWTOdisputefindingswillbemoreeasilyassured.DISPUTESETTLEMENTTheWTO'sdisputesettlementprocessunderscorestheruleoflaw,anditmakesthetradingsystemmoresecureandpredictable.Theproceduresareclearlystructured,withflexibletimetablessetforcompletingacase.Firstrulingsaremadebyapanelandfinalrulingsareendorsed(rejected)bytheWTO'sfullmembership.Appealsthatarebasedonpointsoflawarepossible.Nosinglecountrycanblockthese.TheUnderstandingonRulesandProcedureserningtheSettlementofDisputes(DSU),bothcontinuesandmodifiespriorGATTdisputepractices.ThedisputesettlementsystemoftheWTOisacentralelementinprovidingsecurityandpredictabilitytothemultilaltradingsystemandWTOmemberscommitthemselvesnottotakeunilalactionagainstperceivedviolationsofthetraderulesbuttoseekrecourseinthemultilaldisputesettlementsystemandtoabidebyitsrulesandfindings.SettlingdisputesistheresponsibilityoftheDisputeSettlementBody(DSB)(theDSBistheWTOGeneralCouncilactinginadisputesettlementrole).TheDSBhasthesoleauthoritytoestablish"panels"ofexpertstoconsideracase,andtoacceptorrejectthepanels'findingsortheresultsofanappeal.TheDSBmonitorstheimplementationoftherulingsand mendations,andhasthepowertoauthorizeretaliationwhenacountrydoesnotcomplywitharuling.FIRSTSTAGE-CONSULTATION(UPTO60Beforetakinganyotheractionsthecountriesindisputehavetotalktoeachothertoseeiftheycansettletheirdifferencesbythemselves.Ifthatfails,thetwocountriescsoasktheWTODirectorGeneraltomediateortrytohelpinotherway.SECONDSTAGE-THEPANEL(UPTO45DAYSFORAPANELTOBEAPPOINTED,PLUS6MONTHSFORTHEPANELTOCONCLUDE):Ifconsultationsbetweenthecountriesfail,thecominingcountrycanaskforapaneltobeappointed.Thecountrythathasbeenaccusedofwrongngcanblockthecreationofapanelonce,butwhentheDSBmeetsforasecondtime,theappointmentcannolongerbeblocked(unlessthereisaconsensusagainstappointingthepanel).Panelsaremuchliketribunals.Unliketribunals,however,thepanelistsareusuallychoseninconsultationwiththecountriesindispute.Whenthetwosidesareunabletoagreeonthecompositionofpanelists,theWTODirectorGeneralthenhastheauthoritytoappointthem.Thishappensrarely.Panelsconsistofthree(sometimesfive)expertsfromdifferentcountrieswhoexaminetheevidenceanddecidewhoisrightandwhoiswrong.Thepanel'sreportispassedtotheDSB,whichcanonlyrejectthereportbyconsensus.Panelistsforeachcasecanbechosenfromapermanentlistofwellqualifiedcandidates,orfromelsewhere.Theyserveintheirindividualcapacities.Theycannotreceiveinstructionsfrom mendations.However,sincethepanel'sreportcanonlyberejectedbyconsensusinDSB,itsconclusionsaredifficulttooverturn.Thepanel'sfindingshavetobebasedontheagreementscited.Thepanel'sfinalreportshouldnormallybegiventothepartiestothedisputewithinsixmonths.Incasesofurgency,includingthoseconcerningperishablegoods,thedeadlineisshortenedtothreemonths.ThefollowingbreaksdownthemainstagesofthepanelsBeforethefirsthearing:eachsideinthedisputepresentsitscaseinwritingtotheFirsthearing:thecaseforthecominingcountryanddefense:thecominingcountry(orcountries),therespondingcountry,andthosethathaveannouncedtheyhaveaninterestinthedispute,maketheircaseatthepanel'sfirsthearing.Rebuttals:thecountriesinvolvedsubmitwrittenrebuttalsandpresentoralargumentsatthepanel'ssecondmeeting.Experts:ifonesideraisesscientificorothertechnicalmatters,thepanelmayconsultexpertsorappointanexpertreviewgrouptoprepareanadvisoryreport.Firstdraft:thepanelsubmitsthedescriptive(factualandargument)sectionsofitsreporttothetwosides,givingthemtwoweekstocomment.Thisreportdoesnotincludefindingsandconclusions.Interimreport:Thepanelthensubmitsaninterimreport,includingitsfindingsandconclusions,tothetwosides,givingthemoneweektoaskforareview.Review:Theperiodofreviewmustnotexceedtwoweeks.Duringthattime,thepanelmayholdadditionalmeetingswiththetwosides.FinalReportAfinalreportissubmittedtothetwosidesandthreeweekslater,itiscirculatedtoallWTOmembers.IfthepaneldecidesthatthedisputedtrademeasuredoesbreakaWTOagreementoranobligation,it mendsthatthemeasurebemadetoconformwithWTOrules.Thepanelmaysuggesthowthiscouldbedone.Thereport esaruling:Thereport estheDisputeSettlementBody'sruling mendationwithin60daysunlessaconsensusrejectsit.Bothsidescanappealthereport(sometimesbothpartiesdo).Eithersidehastheopportunitytoappealtherulingbythepanel.Insomecases,bothpartieshaveappealedthepanel'sruling.Appealsarebasedonlegalpointssuchaslegalinterpretation-theycannotbebasedonthereexaminationorexistingevidenceortheexaminationofnewevidence.Eachappealisheardbythreemembersofapermanentseven-memberAppellateBodysetupbytheDSBandbroadlyrepresentingtherangeofWTOmembership.MembersoftheAppellateBodyhavefour-yearterms.Theymustbeindividualswhopossessarecognizedstandinginthefieldoflawandinternationaltrade,andnotaffiliatedwithanyernment.Anappealcanuphold,modifyorreversethepanel'slegalfindingsandconclusions.Normallyappealsshouldnotlastmorethan60days,withthe umbeing90days.TheDSBmustacceptorrejectappealsreportwithin30days.Rejectionoftheappealsreportcanonlybedonebyconsensus.CONCLUDINGAfterthecasehasbeendecided,thelosingpartyor"defendant"needstobringitsintoconformitywiththeDSB'srulingor mendations.Thedisputesettlementagreementstatesthat"promptcompliancewith mendationsorrulingsoftheDSBisessentialinordertoensureeffectiveresolutionofdisputestothebenefitofallMembers".Ifthecountrythatisthetargetofthecomintloses,itmustthenfollowthe mendationsofthepanelreportortheappealsreport.ThecountrymuststateitsintentiontocomplyataDSBmeetingheldwithin30daysofthereportsadoption.Ifitisimpracticaltocomplyimmediay,thememberwillbegivena"reasonableperiodoftime"todoso.Ifitfailstoactwithinthisperiod,ithastoenterintonegotiationswiththecominingcountry(orcountries)inordertodeterminemutually-acceptablecompensation.Ifafter20days,nosatisfactorycompensationhasbeenagreedto,thecominingsidehastheoptionofaskingtheDSBforpermissiontoimposelimitedtradesanctions("suspendconcessionsorobligations")againsttheotherside.TheDSBshouldgrantthisauthorizationwithin30daysoftheexpiryofthe"reasonableperiodoftime"unlessthereisaconsensusagainsttherequest.Inprinciple,thesanctionsshouldbeimposedinthesamesectorasthedispute.Ifforsomereasonthisisnotpracticalorifitcannotbeeffective,thesanctionscanbedirectedtoadifferentsectorofthesameagreement.Ifthisisalsonoteffectiveorpracticableandifthecircumstancesareseriousenough,theactioncanbetakenunderanotheragreement.ThegoalistominimizethechancesofactionsspillinerintounrelatedsectorswhileatthesametimeallowingtheactionstobeeffectiveInconclusion,theDSBmonitorshowadoptedrulingsareimplemented.Anyoutstandingcaseremainsonitsagendauntiltheissueisresolved.QuestionsforWhatisCanyoudescribethestructureoftheWhatisthefunctionoftheCouncilforTradeinArethereanydifferencesbetweenWTOandGATT?WhatareWhataretheWTO’sdisputsettlementprocedures?PleasespecifythedifferentHowarepanelistsWhohearsCananappealuphold,modifyorreversethepanel’slegalfindingsand第七章補充閱讀WTO爭端解決作為國際的模式世界貿易組織和爭議解決程序最后更新：2004年4月24世界貿易組織（WTO）于1995年GATT）最后一輪（烏拉圭回合）談判中成立。 的繼承者。世貿組織負責執(zhí)行旨在減少世界貿易壁壘的協(xié)議。在貿易談判效解決貿易協(xié)定涵蓋的所有政策領域的爭端的程序。烏拉圭回合為世貿組織建立了爭端解決世貿組織的結構世貿組織的結構由其最高權力機構——部長級會議主導，由所有世貿組織成員的。世貿組織的日常工作由多個附屬機構執(zhí)行；主要是事會，也由世貿組織所有成員組成，向部長級會議報告。除了代表部長級會議開展日常工作外，事會還以兩種特殊形式召開會議——作為爭端解決機構（DSB），負責監(jiān)督爭端解決程序；以及作為貿易政策機構，進行定期世事會將職責委托給其他三個主要機構：貨物貿易理事會、服務貿易理事會和知識貿易相關世貿組織事會作為爭端解決機構召開會議，處理烏拉圭回合《最后文件》所載任何協(xié)議引起的爭端。DSB僅有權設立專家組、通過專家組和上訴報告、維持對實施或裁決和建議的監(jiān)督，以及世貿組織爭端解決機制允許在專家組程序中向任何一方提出上訴。上訴由DSB設立的常設上訴機構。該上訴機構由七名成員組成，廣泛代表世貿組織成員。他們的為四年。必須是在法律和國際貿易領域具有公認地位的，并且不能隸屬于任何。職責包括為世貿組織代表機構提供談判和協(xié)議執(zhí)行方面的服務。它負有向發(fā)展家、特別是最不發(fā)達國家提供技術支持的特殊責任。世貿組織和統(tǒng)計學家提供貿易績效和政策分析，而其WTO和GATT之間的區(qū)別WTO和GATTGATT是一套規(guī)則，是一項多邊協(xié)議，沒有制度基礎，只有一個小型附屬處，其 于20世紀40年代建立國際貿易組織嘗試。世貿組織是一個常設機構，有自己的 盡管持續(xù)了四十多年，但它仍然是“臨時基礎”，各國選擇將其視為永久承諾。世貿組織的承諾是全面和永久的。規(guī)則適用于商品貿易。除貨物貿易外，世貿組織還涵2080與舊的體系相比，世貿組織爭端解決體系更快、更自動化、更不易受阻。世