公共事業(yè)管理外文翻譯

公共事業(yè)管理外文翻譯河南理工大學(xué)公共事業(yè)管理專(zhuān)業(yè)2009級(jí)姓名:馮明雷學(xué)號(hào):310919010220班級(jí):事管09-2班FromCrisistoOpportunity:HumanResourceChallengesforthePublicSectorintheTwenty-FirstCenturyViduSoniCentralMichiganUniversityAbstractAgreatdealofattentionhasbeenfocusedonthehumancapitalcrisisinthepublicsectorsincethemid-1990s.Expertsandpractitionersgivemanyreasonswhythecurrentcrisisemerged.Thisarticleexaminestheimportantfactorsthatledtothecrisis,whatisbeingdoneaboutthemthroughpresidentialagendas,legislators,oversightagencies,professionalsocieties,andpublicpolicythinktanks.Concernsaremanyintermsofalargenumberofupcomingretirements,earlyretirements,unplanneddownsizing,difficultyinattractingnewgenerationstopublicservice,andthechangingnatureofpublicservice.However,thehumanresourcecrisisalsopresentsanopportunitytofundamentallychangethosefeaturesofpublicsectorhumanresourcemanagementpracticesthathavebecomeoutdatedforcontemporaryorganizationsandpositiongovernmentagenciesforthetwenty-firstcenturybymeaningfullyreformingthecivilservice.Thistransformationwouldrequirepublicsectororganizationstotakeamorestrategicviewofhumanresourcemanagementandtogivegreaterpolicyattentiontohumancapitalissues.IntroductionIn1989,theNationalCommissiononthePublicService(commonlyreferredtoastheVolckerCommission)issuedareportonthestateofpublicservicecharacterizingitasa“quietcrisis,”whichreferredtotheslowweakeningofthepublicserviceinthe1970sand1980s.Thisperiodwasmarkedbylossofpublicconfidenceinitselectedandappointedofficials,heightenedbureaucratbashingbythemediaandpoliticalcandidates,andadistressedcivilservice.Fordifferentreasons,thequietcrisisofearlierdecadescontinuedthroughthe1990sandispresenttoday.Thecurrentcrisisisbuildingaslargenumbersofgovernmentworkersareexpectedtoretireinthecomingyearsandnotenoughyoungerpeopleareinthepipelineforgovernmentjobs.Addingtothecrisisisunderstaffedgovernmentagencies,askillsimbalance,andalackofwell-trainedsupervisorsandseniorleaders.TheseconcernsarereinforcedbyapreliminaryreportofthesecondNationalCommissiononPublicService(Light,2002),whichpaintsamoredirepictureandforeshadowsamorepronouncedcrisis.Lightcontendsthat“theUnitedStatescannotwinthewaronterrorismorrebuildhomelandsecuritywithoutafullydedicatedfederalcivilservice”(p.2).MillickandSmith(2002,p.3)haveasimilarreactionwhentheystate“whilethefirstNationalCommissiononPublicServicereferredtoa?quietcrisis?inthecivilservice,thesecondCommissionisfacingwhatcanonlybecalledanimminentcatastrophe.”Scholarsandpractitionersalikehavebeenprojectingseriousshortagesinqualifiedworkforceinfederalgovernment(Light,1999;Voinovich,2000;Walker,2000).Thesetrendsinpublicservicepartlyreflectthegenerationalshiftinattitudestowardgovernmentitself.Theyoungergenerationtendsnottochoosepublicservicecareersbecauseofthenegativereputationofgovernment?shiringprocess,lackofchallengingwork,anditssystemofrewards.TheseconcernsledtheGeneralAccountingOffice(GAO)toaddhumanresourcesmanagementtothegovernmentwide“high-risklist”offederalactivitiesin2001.Similarly,inspectorsgeneralatninemajoragencieshavelistedworkforceproblemsamongthetoptenmostseriousmanagementchallengesthattheiragenciesface(GeneralAccountingOffice[GAO],2001).Thefederalgovernment?shumanresourcecrisisthreatensitsabilitytoservethepublicwellandmeettheexpectationsoftheAmericanpeople.Federalagenciesmustrespondbypublicizingjobopportunitiesmoreaggressively,includingofferingyoungerworkersinterestingandchallengingworkandthepotentialforadvancement.Light(2002)arguesthatastrongcivilservicehasfivecharacteristics:itis(1)motivatedbythechancetoaccomplishsomethingworthwhileonbehalfofthecountry,(2)recruitedfromthetopofthelabormarket,(3)giventoolsandorganizationalcapacitytosucceed,(4)rewardedforajobwelldone,and(5)respectedbythepeopleandleadersitserves.However,Lightalsopointoutthat“byallfivemeasures,thefederalservicehaslostgroundsinceSeptember11”(p.2).Thisarticleexaminesthecontextandnatureoftheimpendingworkforcecrisisinfederalgovernmentanddiscussesvariousareasofchangethatmustbeaddressedtoavertthecrisisor,atleast,minimizeitsimpact.Theissuesrelatedtorecruitinganddevelopingpublicsectorhumanresourcesinthetwenty-firstcenturynotonlyrequireconsiderationofthetraditionalremediessuchascivilservicereform,politicalsupport,andmoremanagerialflexibility,butalso,considerationofthechangingnatureofpublicservice(Light,1999)andtheworldofworkacrossallsectors(Spiegel,1995).Manyexternalandinternalorganizationalforcessuchasworkforcedemographics,technology,andprivatization,aswellaserodingtrustingovernmentinstitutionshavedrasticallyalteredtheenvironmentofgovernmentservice.Accordingly,traditionalhumanresource(HR)managementapproachesnolongerwork.TheHRsupplyanddemandproblemmustbeaddressedatmultiplelevels.Educatingpeopleaboutgovernmentservice,raisingtheimageofgovernmentworkers,providingcompetentandreliableleadershipingovernmentagencies,conductingcareerdevelopmentandtrainingofexistingpersonnel,andactivelyrecruiting,particularlyintechnologicalandscientificfields,allwillhavetobedonesimultaneouslytoadequatelyrespondtothehumanresourcecrisisinthepublicsector.Next,thearticledocumentsanddiscussessomeoftheactionsthatvariousfederalagencieshavetakeninresponsetothecrisis.Forexample,theGeneralAccountingOffice(GAO),theUSOfficeofPersonnelManagement(OPM),andtheMeritSystemsProtectionBoard(MSPB)haveconductednumeroussurveys,issuedreportsoncausesoftheproblems,andhavedevelopedtools,techniques,andresourcestoassistthefederalagenciesinsolvingtheproblems.Lastly,thepaperoutlinesrecommendationsandstrategiesthatcanleadthefederalgovernmenttoturnthisHRcrisisintoanopportunityforsystematicreform,modernization,andrevitalizationofpublicsectorhumanresourcespracticesandsystems.TherecentcoalescenceofinterestinaddressingtheHRcrisisandrecognizingitsurgencyisdemonstratedbytheinclusionofdiscussionofworkforceproblemsincongressionalhearings,presidentialpriorities,andreportsissuedbyoversightagenciesandpublicsectorthinktanks.Thisheightenedattentiontothehumanresourcescrisisingovernmentrepresentsapromisingopportunitytoimproveandstrengthenpublicservice.InitiativesTakeninResponsetotheCrisisThefederalgovernmenthastakenseveralinitiativestohelpminimizethenegativeimpactofthehumancapitalcrisis.SenatorVoinovich?sReporttothePresident:TheCrisisinHumanCapital(2000)makesseveralrecommendationsthatfallintwocategories.Thefirstcategoryincludesrecommendationsthatdonotrequirelegislationsuchas,urgingagenciestoconductworkforceplanningandautomatinghiringsystemstospeeduptheprocess.Thesecondcategoryrequireslegislativeactionsuchasmakingthepaysystemmoreflexiblebyallowingbroadbanding,orobtainingspecialhiringauthoritywhenneeded.SeveralagenciessuchastheForestService,GAO,andFederalAviationAdministration(FAA)haverequestedandreceivedspecialwaverstosetpaydeviatingfromtheGeneralSchedulepaystructureandconductdirecthiring.FollowingisadiscussionofsomeoftheimportantadministrativeandlegislativeinitiativesintroducedbyGAO,OPM,andOfficeofManagementandBudgeting(OMB).LeadershipImprovementCompliancewithCongress?directivethatagenciesmeasureanddemonstrateresultsmadeitnecessarythatagencyleadershaveprovenmanagerialcompetenceandleadershipskills.Tofacilitatestrategicmanagementofhumanresourcessothatagenciescanaccomplishtheirpolicyandprogrammaticgoals,SenatorVoinovichaskedtheGAOtodeveloptwotypesofmanagementquestionnairesthatcouldbeusedforconfirmingpresidentialnomineestoadministrativepositions(GAO,2002b,p.35).“Itisclearthatfederalagencyleadersmustcreateanandsustainthatattentiontocreaterealimprovementsintheintegrated,strategicviewoftheirhumancapital—waytheymanagetheirpeople,”arguesthesenator.Thefirstquestionnaireisintendedforthoseappointeeswhowillhavesignificantprogrammanagementresponsibilities,andtheirresponseswillinformtheSenateoftheirmanagementexperienceandpreparednessforaddressingthecurrentandfuturetopmanagementchallengesfacingfederalagencies.Thesecondquestionnaireincludesquestionsonagency-specificmanagementproblemsdrawnfromsourcessuchastheHigh-Riskseries(GAO,2001).Thepurposeofthisquestionnaireistoimprovethequalityoffederalprogramsbyimprovingthequalityofpeopleappointedtomanagethem.Politicalappointeesmustbepreparedtosubstantivelyaddresstheproblemsattheiragencies,notjustgivepolicydirectiontothecareercivilservants.ThequestionnairesconveythemessagethattheSenateconsiderseffectivemanagerialskillstobeapriorityforallnomineestosenioragencypositions.PresidentialManagementAgendaThePresident?sManagementAgenda(OMB,2002)hasidentifiedseveralgovernmentreformgoalsthatwilladdressthehumancapitalcrisis.Amongitsgoalsare:(1)workforceplanningandrestructuringundertakenaspartof“strategicmanagementofhumancapital”thatwillbedefinedintermsofeachagency?smission,goals,andobjectives,(2)agencyrestructuringisexpectedtoincorporateorganizationalandstaffingchangesresultingfrom“competitivesources”andexpandedE-government,(3)aspartofthe2003budgetprocess,OMBhasaskeddepartmentsandagenciestoidentifystatutoryimpedimentstogoodmanagement,(4)agencieswillstrengthenandmakethemostofknowledge,skills,andabilitiesoftheirpeopleinordertomeettheneedsandexpectationsof“theirultimateclients—theAmericanpeople.”Thesereformsareexpectedtocreatelong-termresultsthatwillallowagenciestobuild,sustain,andeffectivelydeploytheskilled,knowledgeable,diverse,andhigh-performingworkforceneededtomeetthecurrentandemergingneedsofgovernmentanditscitizens.Thesereformswillalsoallowthework-forcetoadaptquicklyinsize,composition,andcompetenciestoaccommodatechangesinmission,technology,andlabormarketsandwillcontributetoincreasingemployeesatisfaction.UnderstandingNewPublicServiceLight(1999)arguesthattheendoftwentiethcenturymarkstheendofgovernment-centeredpublicserviceandbringsamultispectralserviceinitsplace.Thismeansthelabormarketfromwhichgovernmentworkerswillbedrawnhasalsobeenalteredsignificantly.“Thegovernment-centeredpublicservicehasbeenreplacedbyanewpublicserviceinwhichgovernmentmustcompetefortalent,”statesLight(p.1).Hisstudyofthegraduatesofthetoptwentyschoolsofpublicadministrationandpublicpolicyshowsthatthenewworkforceislikelytochangejobsandsectorsfrequently,aswellasbemorefocusedonchallengingworkthanonjobsecurity.Lightarguesthattoseriouslyaddressthiscrisis,publicorganizationsandgraduateschoolsofpublicadministrationneedtounderstandthechangingnatureofpublicservice.Thenewpublicserviceisshapedbyblurringofthelinesbetweensectors,developingtrendstowardchangingsectorsduringone?scareer,workerpreferenceforjobsthatprovideflexibilityandanopportunityforgrowth,andthenewtypesofskillsrequiredforpublicsectoremployeesandmanagers.Thisgreateruncertaintyandjobmovementwillmakeitincreasinglydifficultforthegovernmenttoholdontoitstalentandpreventagenciesfrombuildingthekindofexpertiseneededforaneffectivepublicservice.AccordingtoLight,higherpayandaggressiverecruitmentalonewillnotsolvegovernment?sproblem;itmustalsoofferchallengingwork,flexibleorganizations,andbroadercareerpaths.Hesuggestsavarietyofstepsforthegovernmenttobecomecompetitive.First,agenciesneedtodevelopnewrecruitmentprogramsmoreappropriatefortoday?sworkforce.Second,agenciesneedtocreatenewentrypointsforreplacingpeopleinmid-andtop-leveljobs.Insteadofreservingthevastmajorityofpromotionsforinternalcandidates,governmentmustopenthecareerpathstooutsidecompetition.Third,thegovernmentmustrecognizecareerdevelopmentandjobenrichmentasanongoingorganizationalobligation.Itsutilityisdemonstratedbyacasestudy(Kim,2002)oftheNevadaOperationsofficeoftheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)thatshowsastatisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenasupervisor?ssupportofcareerdevelopmentandhighlevelsofjobsatisfaction.Torespondtochallengesofthisnewresponsivenesstoemployeedevelopment,theDOEintroducedIndividualDevelopmentPlanning(IDP)in1999.Supervisorswererequiredtoensurethatemployeeswereprovidedtheopportunitytohavetrainingplansthatweresubjecttoannualreviewandrevisiontoensurethattheseplansdirectlybenefitedthemissionandemployeedevelopmentobjectives.DevelopingExecutiveandSupervisoryTalentInastudyconductedbyHuddleston(1999),thepresidentialawardrecipientmembersoftheSES(SeniorExecutiveService)identifiedseveralleadershipskillsnecessaryfortop-levelexecutives.Theypointedoutfourqualitiesofoutstandingseniorleaders:(1)strategicvision,(2)abilitytomotivateothers,(3)ethicofhardwork,and(4)integrity.Effectiveseniorexecutivesemphasizetheimportanceofarticulatingavision,settinggoals,havingaperformanceorientation,andunderstandingwhattheseconceptsmeanforthesuccessoftheiragencies.Thesearecommonsenseapproachestothemratherthanmanagementfads.Forexample,HuddlestonwritesthatThomasBilly,oftheUSDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA),statedthathisstrategicvisionwastoensurethat“thefoodAmericanseatwillposenorisk(p.5).”Hearguesthatwhilethismaysoundredundantatfirst,itgetstheagencythinkingaboutdesigningregulationsanddevelopingtechnologiestogetthere.Othersattributedtheirsuccesstonothingmorethanhardwork.“Youcan?tbesuccessfulasan85percenter,”saysPaulChistolini,GSA(p.6).Currentleadershipselectionpracticesinthefederalgovernmentarecompletelyatoddswiththenewleadercompetencies,thatis,flexibilityadaptability,accountability,strategicthinking,vision,andcustomerservice,neededtodayandinthefuture.Supervisorsareconcernedthattheiragenciesdonothaveselectionstandardsandareinconsistentintheskillstheyseekforsupervisorypositions.Thislackofconsistencymeansthatsupervisorycompetenciesandperformancemanagementskillsmaynotbeevaluatedasthoroughlyasneeded.Forexample,performancemanagementcompetencyincludingmeasuringperformance,monitoringperformance,developingemployees,ratingperformance,andrewardinggoodworkarenotassessedormeasuredinprospectiveleaders(OPM,2001a).Thejobofleadershipdevelopmentrestsbothwiththeexistingseniorleadersandtheorganizations.Katter(1993,p.139)arguesthatanenvironmentthatissupportiveofthetimeandefforttogrowleadersneedstobecultivatedinorganizationstofillthecurrentleadershipvoid.Blunt(2002a)suggeststhatlaunchingasuccessfulleadershipdevelopmentprogramisdrivenbyfiveimperatives.First,thevisibilityofthenumberofmanagersandseniorleaderswhowillretireinthenextfiveyearsprovidesasuccessionimperative.Second,thedecisiontoestablishaleaderdevelopmentprogramisastrategicimperativeandshouldbereflectedinofficialstrategicplanssubmittedwiththeannualbudget.Third,thecurrentdissatisfactionwithorganizationalperformancefromexternalsources,e.g.,theGAO,Congress,theOMB,andthepublicshouldprovideaperformanceimperativetofocusondevelopingleaders.Fourth,thechanginglandscapeforperformancerequiresachangeinthetypeofleadersbeingdeveloped;thisisthecompetencyimperative.Fifth,theorganizationchampionimperativerequiresseniorleaderswillingtotaketheinitiativetopromoteandsustainleadershipdevelopmentprograms.Takentogether,theseofferorganizationsabeginningpointforlaunchingleadershipdevelopmentprograms.LongitudinalresearchconductedbyCenterforCreativeLeadershipplacesleaderlearninginfourbroadcategories:challengingjobassignments,learningfromothers?examples,hardshipsandsetbacks,andeducationandtraining.Similarly,seniorleaderscandevelopanewgenerationofleadersbyservingasanexemplar,amentor,andacoach,ororganizationscancreateprogramsthatwouldusesuchalearningmodel(Blunt,2002b).Researchprovidesevidencethatapositiverelationshipexistsbetweensupervisorycharacteristicsandlevelsofjobsatisfaction.OldhamandCummings(1996)foundthatemployeesproducedthemostcreativeoutcomeswhentheyworkedoncomplex,challengingjobsandweresupervisedinasupportive,nocontrollingway.Supportivesupervisorsencouragesubordinatestovoicetheirownconcerns,providedpositiveandmainlyinformationalfeedback,andfacilitatedemployeeskillsdevelopment.Supervisorsalsoneedskillsinperformancemanagement,fairappraisals,andeffectiveskillutilizationaspointedoutbyanOfficeofPolicyandEvaluationattheMSPBstudy(MSPB,1998).Thestudysuggestedthatwhendownsizingoccurs,supervisorsneedtobemuchmoreconcernedabouthowtheyusethetalenttheyhaveontheirstaffsandthatitiscriticalthatanystaffing,employeedevelopment,andperformancemanagementdecisionsbemadewithalong-termperspectiveinmind.ImprovedSkillinManagingaDiverseWorkforceWhiletheworkforcestatistics(seeTable3oftheAppendix)showincreasingdiversityatalllevelsofgovernmentemploymentincludingdiversityincontractors,verylittleattentionhasbeenfocusedondevelopingdiversitycompetenceofmanagersandemployeesaspartofthegovernment?shumancapitalstrategy.Contrarytothis,theprivatesectorhasmadediversitymanagementskillsasoneofthedominantissuesfordevelopingleadersforthetwenty-firstcentury.Diversitymanagementskillshaveevengreatersignificanceforpublicsectorleadersandorganizationsnotonlybecausethegovernmentworkforceischanging,butalsobecauseoftheincreasinglydiversecommunitiespublicadministratorsserve.Also,thesensitivenatureofthecurrentUSforeignpolicyenvironmentmakesdiversitycompetenceanimportantpriority.Itiscrucialtounderstandtheimplicationsoftheworkforce,community,societal,andglobaldiversitymeansforpublicadministrationandtakethemintoconsiderationasagenciesdeveloptheirmissions,strategicplans,andleadershiptrainingprograms.Recognizingitsimportance,theNationalAssociationofSchoolsofPublicAffairsandAdministration(NASPAA)organizedseveralpanelson“managingcommunitywithoutmajorities”inits2002NationalConference(ConferenceBrochure).Researchshowsthatinspiteofthediversityinitiativesinmostfederalagencies,underutilizationandqualityofwork-lifeissuesthatexistforwomenandminoritiesremainunresolved.Forexampleastudyofafederalagency(Soni,2000,p.401)revealedthat47%to79%ofwomenandminoritiescontinuetofeelthatthey“havetoworkharderthanwhitemalestoprovethemselves,”andonly29%ofminoritiesbelievethattheagency“discouragescommentsorjokesthatperpetuatestereotypesandprejudice.”Similarstudies(Naff&Kellough,2002;Soni,1997)showthatinspiteofincreaseddiversityintheworkplace,organizationalcapacitytofullyutilizeandeffectivelymanagediversityremainslimited.Therearemanyreasonsforthislimitation.Forexample,theinabilityandlackofwillingnessonthepartoforganizationalleadersandmemberstorecognizeeffectivediversitymanagementasasalientworkplaceissueorthatinstitutionalandculturalbiasesandbarrierscanlimitagencies?approachestodiversity.Successfullymanagingdiversityisachallengingprocess,butwithaclearvision,carefulplanningandawillingnessandcommitmenttochange,governmentcandevelopacompetitiveadvantageasanemployerandaproducerofservicestotheAmericanpeople.Riccuci(2002)arguesthatagenciesneedtodeveloptheabilitytoaddresssuchchallengesascommunicationbreakdowns,misunderstandings,andevenhostilitiesthatinvariablyresultfromworkinginanenvironmentwithpersonsfromhighlydiversebackgrounds,agegroups,andlifestyles.Totheextentthatthedemographicsoftheworkforcereflectthatofthegeneralpopulationthatitservesanditiseffectivelymanaged,thedeliveryofpublicservicewillbegreatlyenhanced.Publicsectororganizationsmustassessandunderstandthecurrentdemographiccomplexionoftheirworkforceinconjunctionwithprojectedforecastsforchange(Workforce2020,1997).“Publicsectororganizationsthatperfunctorilydevelopdiversityprogramssolelyforthepurposeofavoidingliabilityinpotentiallawsuitscompletelymissthepointabouttheimportanceofdiversityprograms.TheywillfailtoadequatelyplanfortheirownsuccessfulperformanceaswellasthefuturegovernanceofAmericanpeople,”notesRiccucci(2002,p.31).ImprovingHumanResourceManagementPracticesProposalstoreformcivilserviceandpublicsectorhumanresourcemanagement(HRM)inthetwenty-firstcenturyfallintothreecategories.Thefirstproposaladvocatescuttingcostsanddowngradingthecareerworkforce(Klingner&Nalbandian,2003;Levine&Kleeman,1992).Thisapproachreflectstheantigovernmentvaluesprominentinthelate1990s.AdvocatesofthisapproachcriticizepublicsectorHRmanagementasbeingrule-bound,inflexible,drivenbylegalmandates,riskaverse,andaconstraintonmanagers.TheyseelittleconnectionbetweenHRmanagementandorganizationalmissionandrecommendeliminatingtheinhouseHRdepartmentandoutsourcethemajorityofitsfunctions.Thesecondproposalcallsforupgradingthecompensation,status,andresponsibilitiesofthecareercivilserviceemployees.ThisapproachemphasizesthestrongoversightroleofOPMtopreservethemeritprinciplesandensureconsistencyinHRmanagementinthefederalgovernment.AdvocatesofthisapproachvalueexpertiseembodiedinHRprofessionalsandconsistencyinpersonnelpolices,aswellasthenecessityandimportanceofcompliancewithlegalmandates.Thisapproachisbaseduponthetraditionalprinciplesofmerit,thatis,personnelpracticesbasedonknowledge,skills,andabilities,fairness,andsocialequity.Thethirdproposalarguesthattheessenceofmodernhumanresourcesmanagementisworkforceplanning.Thisstrategyrecommendsthatfederalagencies?humanresourceactivitiesshouldbeguidedbylong-termplanningratherthenshort-termproblems.Thisapproachadvocatestheimportanceofidentifyingandconnectingpresentandfuturecompetencieswiththeoutcomesidentifiedinanorganization?sstrategicplan.Itincludestakinganinventoryofwhatisavailableinthecurrentworkforceandwhatisneeded,andhowtoclosethegap.Spiegel(1995)arguesthattherearetwoprimarydriversofworkplacetransitions.Technologicalchangesstimulatethedemandsideofwork—whatneedstobedoneandinwhatform.Demographicandsocialchanges,thesupplyside,influencethekindsofworkersavailabletoassumeworkrolesandthenatureoftheirinterfacewiththeinstitutionsatwork.Informationtechnology,alongwiththegrowthofknowledgeandglobalcompetitionhascreatedboundary-lessorganizationsremovingintermediariesanddistributingpower.Insuchanenvironment,theabilityofanorganizationtoacquireorcreateknowledgehasbecomeanimportantrequirementforitssurvival.However,achievementofthisgoalisoftendifficultbecauseorganizationstendtoreplicatetheirpastresponseswhenconfrontedbynewstimuliandallowtheirpastsuccessestorestraintheirfuturechoices(March&Simon,1958).Thus,inthefaceofnewchallenges,thefederalgovernmentmustreframeitsHRissues,andnotrelysolelyonpastapproachestosolvethecurrentcrisis.ReestablishingaPublicServiceEthicResearchershavelongstudiedthemotivationalcharacteristicsofpublicserviceandhowitaffectsthequalityandcontentofpublicoutput.PerryandWise(1990)arguethatpublicservicemotivesfallintothreeanalyticalcategories:rational,normbasedandaffective.Rationalmotivesinvolveactionsthataregroundedinanindividual?sdesiretomaximizeutility.Norm-basedmotivesrefertoactionsgeneratedbyeffortstoconformtonorms.Affectivemotivesrefertotriggersofbehaviorthataregroundedinemotionalresponsestovarioussocialcontexts.Publicservicemotivationisseldomdefinedbyutilitymaximization;however,anethicofpublicservicecanbedictatedbyrationalmotivessuchasparticipationintheprocessofpolicyformulationorcommitmenttoapublicprogram.Onecanalsobedriventopublicservicebyaffectivemotivessuchaspersonalidentificationwithaprogrambasedonanindividual?sconvictionaboutitssocialimportance,servicetosociety,orpatriotism,whichbringswithitawillingnesstosacrificeforothers.Thepublicserviceethichassignificantbehavioralimplications.Thelevelandtypeofanindividual?spublicservicemotivationinfluenceshisorherjobchoicesandjobperformance.Publicorganizationsthatattractmemberswithhighlevelsofpublicservicemotivationarelikelytobelessdependentonutilitarianincentivestomanageindividualperformanceeffectively.MillickandSmith(2002,p.3)arguethatinthepost-9/11environment,governmentshouldsellpeopleonpublicservice,“OPMshouldspearheadapubliccampaignaimedatinformingthepublic...andcapitalizingonthepatrioticsentimentsinthecountry.”Thegreatriskinthecurrenttrendoftreatingthepublicservicelikeaprivateenterpriseisthatitfailstoacknowledgeuniquemotivesunderlyingpublicsectoremploymentandthecriticallinkagebetweenthewayagencie