聯(lián)合國貿(mào)易發(fā)展委員會-將與貿(mào)易有關(guān)的措施納入國家自主貢獻（英）

UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADEANDDEVELOPMENT

Mappingtrade-relatedmeasuresinNationallyDeterminedContributions

Technicalnote

28November2023

Supplychains,tradeflowsandvalueaddition

ii

Contents

AbbreviationsandAcronyms iii

1.Introduction 1

2.Methodology 1

3.PreliminaryFindings 3

a)Renewableenergysourceandenergyefficiency 4

b)Greenvaluechaindevelopment 5

c)Greenindustrialdevelopmentandeconomicdiversification 7

d)Technicalregulations 7

e)Market-basedmeasures 9

f)Publicprocurement 11

g)Tariffs 11

h)Subsidiesandtaxexemptions 13

4.Conclusionandthewayforward 13

5.References 15

6.Annex 17

iii

AbbreviationsandAcronyms

AFOLU

Agriculture,ForestryandOtherLandUse

CIACA

CollaborativeInstrumentsforAmbitiousClimateActionprogram

CO2

Carbondioxide

COP

ConferenceoftheParties

CPI

CarbonPricingInstrument

EV

Electricvehicles

GWP

GlobalWarmingPotential

HFCs

Hydrofluorocarbons

HScode

HarmonizedSystemcode

IPCC

IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange

LDCs

Leastdevelopedcountries

LED

Light-emittingdiode

LLDCs

Landlockeddevelopingcountries

MEPS

Minimumenergyperformancestandards

MW

Megawatts

NDC

Nationallydeterminedcontribution

PV

Photovoltaic

RAC

RefrigerationandAir-Conditioning

REDD

Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradationindevelopingcountries

SIDS

Smallislanddevelopingstates

SOC

Soilorganiccarbon

UNCTAD

UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

UNFCCC

UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange

VAT

ValueAddedTax

WTO

WorldTradeOrganization

1

1.Introduction

UndertheParisAgreement,“eachPartyshallprepare,communicateandmaintainsuccessivenationallydeterminedcontributionsthatitintendstoachieve”(UNFCCC,2023a).Thesenationallydeterminedcontributions,orNDCs,reflecteachcountry’shighestpossibleambitiontotackleclimatechange,takingintoaccounttheircommonbutdifferentiatedresponsibilities,respectivecapabilities,andnationalcircumstances.NDCsincludeemissionreductionobjectives(UNFCCC,2023b)andmostcontaindetailedlistsofadaptationandmitigationmeasurestobeimplementedoveragivenperiod.Suchmeasurescanalsopursueeconomicdiversificationoutcomes.

EachPartytotheParisAgreement1isrequiredtoestablishanNDCandupdateiteveryfiveyears.Theupdatesshouldconsiderincreasedprogression(UNFCCC,2023a).TheParisAgreementstatesthataglobalstocktakingtoassessprogresstowardsachievingitslong-termgoalsistotakeplaceeveryfiveyears(UNFCCC,2023a).TheSynthesisreportonthetechnicaldialogueofthefirstglobalstocktake2findsthatdespitesignificantprogressinglobalmitigationandadaptationactionandsupport,theworldisnotontracktomeetthelong-termgoalsoftheParisAgreement(UNFCCC,2023f).ThefirstglobalstocktakeissettoconcludeattheUnitedNationsClimateConference(COP28)inDubaiinDecember2023.

Tradepolicyactionscanbeeffectivetoolsonthegroundtoachievethetargets,forinstance,facilitatinglocalindustries’accesstoenvironmentallypreferablegoodsandservices.UNCTADisconductinganexercisetoassesstheinterfacebetweenadvancingclimatecommitmentsofmemberStates,asstipulatedintheirNDCs,andtradepolicy.Theexercisefirstidentifiesreferencestotrade-relatedactionsinselecteddevelopingcountries'mostrecentlyupdatedNDCs,then“maps”themaccordingtotheimmediateclimatechangemitigationobjectives.

Thispaperprovidesinterimfindingsfromtheongoingexerciseandisstructuredasfollows.Section2describesthemethodologyoftheassessment.Section3mapsthetrade-relatedmeasuresidentifiedintheexercisewithkeyclimateactionobjectives.Section4presentsconclusions.

2.Methodology

Thereportundertakesamappingofthemeasures3thatinteractwithtradeincludedin60NDCsofdevelopingcountries.4TheNDCswereselectedtoensuretheinclusionofabroadrangeofdevelopingcountriesconsidering:

.Regionalrepresentation(Africa,AsiaandthePacific,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,andMiddleEastcountries)

.Incomelevel(high-,middle-,andlow-incomecountries)

.LeastDevelopedCountries(LDCs)

1TheParisAgreementisalegallybindinginternationaltreatyonclimatechange.Itwasadoptedby196PartiesattheUNClimateChangeConference(COP21)inParis,France,on12December2015.Itenteredintoforceon4November2016.Itsoverarchinggoalistohold“theincreaseintheglobalaveragetemperaturetowellbelow2°Cabovepre-industriallevels”andpursueefforts“tolimitthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°Cabovepre-industriallevels.”

2Availableat

/documents/631600

.

3Inthecontextofthisreport“measures”referstospecificpoliciesandactionsincludedintheNDCsthatcontributetomitigation,includingadaptationactionsandeconomicdiversificationplanswithmitigationco-benefits.

4

Outofatotalof195NDCsfromcountriesavailableontheNDCRegistrymanagedbytheUNFCCC.See

/NDCREG

.

2

.Commoditydependentcountries

.SmallIslandsDevelopingStates(SIDS)

.Landlockedcountries

TheNDCsincludedinthesamplewereeitherneworupdatedsubmissionsasof30September2023,5comprisingdetailedinformationaboutmitigationand/oradaptationmeasures.6

Mappingtrade-relatedprovisionsinNDCspresentvariouschallengeslinkedtothenatureoftheParisAgreement,theflexiblenatureofthestyleandcontentofthecontributions,theabsenceofuniformtypesofcontent(verydetailedvsverysuccinct),anddifferentversionsofNDCs(firstsubmissions,updates,secondsubmissions,orthirdsubmissions).Also,notallcountriesshowthesamestageofadvancementandscopeintheirsubmissions,andthereislimitedinformationontheimplementationstrategiesattheleveloftargetsandmeasures.

AsNDCswidelyvaryamongthemintermsofformat,availability,informationandscope,theanalysisisqualitativeandfocusesonidentifyingtrade-relatedmeasures.MeasureswerecategorisedbasedareviewoftheavailableliteratureonanalysisofmeasuresrelatedtotradeinNDCs,7tradeandclimatepolicy,andapreliminaryanalysisofthedata.

Identifiedmeasurescanbecategorizedintwomaingroups:i)measuresindirectlylinkedtotradeandprimarilypursuingbroaderobjectivessuchasincreasingrenewableenergyproduction,promotingeconomicdiversification,orgreeningindustrialpolicies,andii)measuresdirectlylinkedtotheregulationoftradeactivitiesorthecreationofmarketincentivesordisincentivesimpactingtradesuchastariffs,taxesortechnicalregulations.

Thefirstgroupofmeasures,thosethathavealargermitigationandeconomicdiversificationpurpose,maynotprimarilyfocusontrade.However,ifsuccessfullyimplemented,theyarelikelytotriggeranincreaseinthetradeofenvironmentallypreferablegoodsandsustainableservices.Forinstance,measuresaimedatincreasingcleanenergyproduction,wouldresultinincreasedimportsofrenewableenergygenerationequipment,suchassolarpanelsorwindturbines,whenthesegoodsarenotdomesticallyproducedoravailable.Measuresfromthisgroupincludethefollowing:

a)Renewableenergysourcesandenergyefficiencypromotion:Measuresinthiscategoryincludethoseaimedatsupportingtheenergytransitiontorenewableenergysources,thedeploymentofrenewableenergiesinfrastructureneededtosupporttheenergytransitionandincreasingtheshareofrenewableenergysources.Also,thiscategoryincludesmeasuresaimedatincreasingenergyefficiency.

b)Greenvaluechaindevelopment:Thiscategoryconsidersmeasuresaimedatreducingthegreenhousegasemissionsofvaluechainsandtoincreasetheir

sustainability.

c)Greenindustrialdevelopmentandeconomicdiversification:ThiscategoryincludesmeasuresintheNDCswhicharepartofdiversificationplansthatcan

5NDCsaresubmittedeveryfiveyearstotheUNFCCCsecretariat,withthenextroundofNDCs(neworupdated)beingsubmittedby2025(UNFCCC,2023c).

6However,itisrelevanttonotethatcountriesmayusedifferentUNFCCCmechanismstoreportonadaptationmeasures,suchasNationalAdaptationPlans(Fransenetal.,2022).

7SeeforinstanceBrandi(2017),BrentonandChemutai(2021),Cosbey(Cosbey,2018),Elkalwagy(2017),Laurensetal.(2022),UNCTAD(2022),UNCTAD(2023)andWTO(WTO,2021)..

3

contributetomitigationeffortsandmeasures,includingdevelopmentoflowcarbongreenvaluechains.

Thesecondgroupofmeasures,thosewithadirectlinktotradeingoodsorservicesincludethefollowing:

d)Technicalregulations(includinglabelsandproductstandards)

e)Market-basedmeasures(includingcarbonpricingaffectingimportsandcarbon

creditslinkedtolanduse,land-usechange,andforestry)

f)Publicprocurement

g)Tariffs

h)Subsidiesandtaxcredits

Itisimportanttonotethatthetrade-relatedmeasurescouldbeallocatedtoseveralcategoriesdependingontheircharacteristicsandtheavailabilityofinformation.ThefollowingFigureshowsthelinkagesbetweenthemeasuresrelatedtotradeidentifiedintheanalysis:

Figure1:Linkagesbetweenmeasuresrelatedtotrade

Measuresto

promote

climatechange

mitigationand

adaptation

Subsidiesandtaxcredits

Greenindustrial

developmentand

economic

diversification

GreenValue

Chain

development

Renewable

energysourcesandenergy

efficiency

Tradeand

export

opportunities

Technicalregulations

Publicprocurement

Market-based

measures

Source:UNCTAD

3.PreliminaryFindings

Thecurrentanalysishasidentified680trade-relatedmeasures?althoughNDCsseldommentiontrade?dividedintodirectandindirectmeasures,basedontheirrelationtotrade.Mostofthesemeasuresdealwithrenewableenergyandefficiency,greenvaluechaindevelopment,technicalregulations,andgreenindustrialandeconomicpolicies.Technical

4

regulationsarethemostusedmeasuresdirectlyrelatedtotrade.Othertrade-relatedmeasures,suchassubsidiesandtaxcredits,market-basedmechanismsandpublicprocurementwerenotoftenfoundinthemapping.Figure2showsthenumberofmeasuresidentifiedpercategory.

Figure2:NumberofmeasuresidentifiedintheNDCmappingexercise

Source:UNCTAD

Note:Measurescouldappearinmorethanonecategory.

ThefollowingsubsectionspresentexamplesofthemeasuresincludedintheNDCs,astheyarepresentedinthecontributions(unedited).AnunofficialtranslationispresentedinthisreportwhentheoriginaltextwasunavailableinEnglish.

a)Renewableenergysourceandenergyefficiency

Thetransitiontowardsamoreefficientandcleanerenergysystemiscrucialforimplementingthemitigationstrategytofulfilcountries’carbonreductioncommitmentsoutlinedintheirNDCs.Fromthemappingexercise,morethan50countriesincludedmeasuresrelatedtoincreasingtheavailabilityofrenewableenergysourcesandenergyefficiency.Themappingidentified281measuresassociatedwiththisobjective,makingitthemostmentionedcategory.

Mostmitigationstrategiesunderthisobjectivearerelatedtorenewableenergyforelectricitygeneration.Thedevelopmentofinfrastructureforsolarenergysites,windfarms,andhydroelectricdamsarethetoppriorityformanycountriestohelpmeettheircarbonreductiontargetsandacceleratethetransitionfromfossilfueltorenewableenergyinelectricitygeneration.Table1Onenergyefficiency,thefocusisonincreasingefficiencyinbuildings,transportation,currentgrid,andinfrastructure.Inincreasingenergyefficiencyinbuildingsandresidentialareas,somecountrieslistedtheuseofmoreenergy-efficientlighting,suchasLEDlamps,whileotherspromotedtheadoptionofgreenbuildingsthatimproveenergyefficiencyandreduceemissions,includingbutnotlimitedtoimprovementinheating,ventilation,andairconditioningsystems.8

Table1showsseveralexamplesofrenewableenergyandenergyefficiencymeasuresmentionedinthesampleofNDCs.Ineachexamplethroughoutthepaper,wepresentpotential

8Inthetransportsector,severalcountriesspecificallymentionmeasurestopursuethetransitionofpublicbusfleetsfromtraditionalcombustionenginestoelectricones,whichcouldincreasetheimportsofthesetypeofvehicles.SeveraloftheNDCsanalysedincludeamoregeneralapproachbyfocusingonincreasingthenumberofelectricvehicles,andcommittingtoincreasingtheavailabilityofchargingstations,whileimposingrestrictionsontheuseoffossilfuel-poweredvehicles.

5

tradeimpact,referringtopossibletradepolicy-suchasexport,import,ortariff-resultingfromtherecordedmeasuresoutlinedintheNDCs.

Table1:ExamplesofNDCmeasureslinkedtorenewableenergyandenergyefficiency

Country

Measures

Potentialtradeimpact

BurkinaFaso

ConstructionofSolarPVsitesinEssakane,

Matourkou,Dori,Diapaga,andGaouatoincreaseelectricityproductionto85MW.

ImportsolarPVequipment

Morocco

Installationofseveralwindpowerplantsonseveralsitesforatotalcapacityequivalentto2180MWby2030.

Importofrelevantinputsforwindmillsinstallations

Bangladesh

Useenergy-efficientappliancesinhouseholdand

commercialbuildings(achieve5percentand12percentreductioninemissionrespectively).

Implementationof

technicalregulations

Cuba

Theinstallationof15,250,000LEDlampsintheresidentialandpublicsectors.

IncreasedLEDimports

Bahamas

Developincentivestoencouragethepurchaseof

electricvehicles.Installationofchargingstationsforelectricvehicles.

Increasedimportofelectricvehiclesandcharging

stationsforelectric

vehicles

Namibia

10,000ElectricVehicles-replacinggasoline.

Importofelectricvehicles

b)Greenvaluechaindevelopment

Measureslinkedtogreenvaluechaindevelopmentarethesecondmostusedtypeoftrade-relatedmeasuresidentifiedintheanalysis(231measures).Over65measureswereidentifiedineachofthefollowingregions:Africa,AsiaPacific,andLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Greenvaluechaindevelopment-relatedmeasuresaccountfor31percentofallmeasuresidentifiedinAfrica,38percentinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,and35percentinAsia.Nineoutof46totalmeasures(20percent)ofthemeasuresidentifiedintheMiddleEastcountriesstudieswerefoundtosupportgreenvaluechaindevelopment.

Inviewofthesectorscoveredandtheassociatedimpactsbothintermsofclimatechangeadaptationandmitigation,measuresaimingatsupportinggreenvaluechaindevelopmenthavethepotentialtoshapenationalproductionandtrade.Ourmappinganalysisshowsthatlessthan10percentofgreenvaluechaindevelopmentmeasureshaveadirectlinkwithexportorimportactivities,thushighlightingthepotentialforgreaterinclusionoftradeintoNDCs.ExamplesofdirectlinkagesbetweentradeandgreenvaluechaindevelopmentmeasurescanbefoundinTable2.

TwobroadcategoriesofmeasuresrelatedtogreenvaluechaindevelopmentcanbefoundinNDCs.Thefirstcategoryincludesmeasuresaimedatsupportingthedevelopmentofspecificgreenvaluechains,focusingontheproductorsectorofthetargetedvaluechains.Specificsectorsassociatedwiththesetypesoftrade-relatedmeasuresincludeforestry(possiblylinkedtobiodiversityconservation),agriculture(includingagro-forestryandagro-processing,irrigation,landmanagementandfoodsecurity),fisheries&livestock,cement,andsustainable

6

tourism.Majorexportproductsidentifiedasthefocusofgreenvaluechaindevelopmentmeasuresincludecoffee,cocoa,palmoil,rice,forestproducts,andcement.

Table2:ExamplesofselectedNDCtraderelatedmeasuresassociatedwithgreenvaluechaindevelopment.

Country

Measures

Potentialtradeimpact

Malawi

Establishgrainexportprocessingzonesanddevelopresilientvaluechains.

Increasedexportof

processedlow-carbon

grainproducts

Mauritius

Tourism:i)promotionofa"greentourismindustry"meaningmoreenergyefficiency,renewableenergy,waterefficiency,wastemanagement,wastewater

treatment,local–shortvaluechainsforboththetouristic/leisureinfrastructuresandtheactivities.

Lowercarbonfootprintofthetourismsector(tourismisconsideredasanexportofservices)

Bolivia

(PlurinationalStateof)

Doubletheareasunderintegratedandsustainableforestmanagementby2030.Inparticular,theneedtoaccessinternationalmarketsforproductsderivedfromintegratedandsustainableforestmanagementisconsideredimportant.

Increasedexportof

sustainablenon-timberforestproducts

Table3:ExamplesofNDCtrade-relatedmeasurestopromotecirculareconomypractices

Country

Measures

Potentialtradeimpact

CaboVerde

Encouragemanufacturersandbusinesses,throughfiscalincentivesandcapacitydevelopment,to

designcircularproductsandservicesbasedon

resourcesrecovery,biodegradability,andthetrueproductioncosts,includingenvironmentalcosts.Productswhicharesimple,low-energy,easyto

repair,andpassiveshouldbefavoured.This

measurewillbestimulatedbyadoptingtariffandtaxsolutionsthatfavourlocalproducersandcompaniesasopposedtointernationalprovidersand

accompaniedbythesettingofindicatorstomonitorachievement.Aflagshiplocalproductwhichcan

substituteimportsissalt.

Increaseinexportsof

sustainablyproduced

manufacturedgoodsanddecreaseinimportofnon-circularandlesscarbon

efficientimports.

CostaRica

Intheyear2025,thecountrywillpromotea

comprehensivecirculareconomysystemfor

agriculturalfarms,takingintoconsiderationthe

processesofbiodigestionandsoildecarbonizationthroughtheuseoftechnologiestoincreaseorganic

carbonlevelsinthesoil(SOC),amongothermeasures.

Increaseinlowcarbonagriculturalexports.

Mexico

NationalCircularEconomyStrategy,aswellas

programsandincentivesforenergyefficiency,

consideringbothregulatoryprogramsandthe

promotionofefficientcogenerationinindustry,

services,andcommercesectors,includingsugarmills.

Lowercarbonfootprintofindustrialandservice

exports.

7

Uganda

Clinker9substitutionincementproduction.This

measureaimstosubstituteclinkerincement

productionwithlesscarbon-intensiveconstituents

likepozzolana,fly-ashorslag.Thismeasurehasthepotentialtoreduceemissionsbyapproximately0.10MtCO2e(CO2equivalent)by2030.

Lowercarbonfootprintofcement.

c)Greenindustrialdevelopmentandeconomicdiversification

Eighty-twotrade-relatedmeasuresarelinkedtogreenindustrialdevelopmentandeconomicdiversification(11percent).Only14measuresappeartohaveadirecteffectontrade.Butmeasuresmayhaveanindirectimpactontrade.Themeasuresareoverallbalancedintermsofregionaldistribution.Ineachofthestudiedregions,between50and60percentofthecountriesconsidermeasuresintheirNDCsthatarerelatedtogreenindustrialdevelopmentandeconomicdiversification.72percentofthemeasuresinthiscategoryareidentifiedasmitigationmeasures,while28percentcouldbeconsideredasmeasureswithadaptationobjectives.

Measuresingreenindustrialdevelopmentandeconomicdiversificationcategoriesoftenincludeaspectsrelatedtogreenvaluechaindevelopment(about20percent)butaremostlyspecificallyaimedatincreasingproductivity,thedevelopmentofthehydrogensector,andhowthissectorcancontributetoselectedvaluechains.Table4describesexamplesoftradeandtrade-relatedmeasuresassociatedwithgreenindustrialdevelopmentanddiversification.

Table4:ExamplesofNDCmeasuresaimedatpromotinggreenindustrialdevelopmentanddiversification

Country

Measures

Potentialtradeimpact

CostaRica

Developmentofastrategyforthedevelopmentandpromotionofgreenhydrogen.

Exportsofgreen

hydrogen.

Morocco

Energyefficiencyprogramforindustry.Reductioninenergyconsumptionintheindustrialsectorby17

percentby2030.

Alowercarbonfootprintofindustrialproductsmay

increasecarbon

competitivenessand

exports.

Bolivia

(PlurinationalStateof)

Increaseinvestmentinproductiveinfrastructurein

theagriculturalsectorinordertoconsolidatefood

sovereigntyandsecuritythroughtheimplementation

ofresilientinfrastructureinconsensuswiththestakeholders.

Increaseinexportsof

agriculturalproducts.

Chile

Hydrogen(cargotransportation,motorusesin

industryandmining,thermaluseviagasdistributionpipe).

Exportsofgreen

hydrogen.

d)Technicalregulations

TheInternationalclassificationofnon-tariffmeasures(NTMs)definestechnicalregulationsasdocuments"thatsetsoutproductcharacteristicsorrelatedprocessesandproductionmethods,includingtheapplicableadministrativeprovisions,withwhichcomplianceismandatory.Itmayalsoincludeordealexclusivelywithterminology,symbols,packaging,

9"ProducingonetonneofportlandcementreleasesroughlyonetonneofCO2totheatmosphere,andsometimesmuchmore,

andthecementindustryaccountsfor7-8percentoftheplanetshuman-producedCO2emissions.Halfofitcomesfromproducingclinker(theincombustibleremainsofcoalcombustion)”.(UNEP,2010).

8

markingorlabellingrequirementsastheyapplytoaproduct,process,orproductionmethod"(UNCTAD,2019).10

Inthecontextofthismappingexercise,technicalregulationswerefoundtobethemostfrequentlyusedtypeoftrade-relatedmeasuresadoptedbycountriestotackleclimatechange.Theyareusedtoensurethatimportedproductsmeetdesiredcarbonemissionandefficiencylevelsbyestablishingminimumperformancestandards,aswellastestingandcertificationrequirements.Technicalregulationsarealsousedtoguideconsumerbehaviourthroughmandatorylabellingschemes,resultinginthedisplayofinformationoncarbonperformance.Forthesereasons,almost40percentoftechnicalregulationsmappedinthepresentstudywerecommonlyadoptedinconjunctionwithmeasuresaimingtopromoteenergyefficiencyand/orrenewableenergy(anotheroneofthemostfrequentlyusedtrade-relatedmeasuresinNDCs).

ThemainproductssubjecttotechnicalregulationsincludedinNDCsincludeappliances(strongenergyefficientcomponent),vehicles(emissions,aerodynamic,performanceoftheparts),constructionmaterial(throughbuildingcodes),refrigeration&airconditioning(RAC)andheatingdevices,fisheryproducts,andcementandconcrete.

Table5:SelectedtechnicalregulationsidentifiedintheNDCmappingexercise

Country

Measures

Potentialtradeimpact

Namibia

Namibiaaimstointroduceclimate-friendlyand

energy-efficientappliancesthrough(…)abanonhighGWP11equipmentandtheintroductionof

minimumenergyperformancestandards(MEPS)

thatgenerateemissionreductions,bothfromtheuse

ofrefrigerants(directemissions)andfromlowenergyconsumption(indirectemissions).

(Topreventlock-inofhighlyclimate-damagingHFC12refrigerantsinthetimebetweennowandthefirst

KigaliAmendmentphase-downstepin2029)

Importsofnon-climate

friendlyandenergy

inefficientappliancesin

Namibiawillberestricted.

Colombia

ImplementationofEuro4and6emissionstandardsfornewdieselvehicles.

Onlyvehiclesmeeting

requiredemission

standardswillbeimportedtoColombia.

UnitedArab

Emirates

Energyefficiencystandardizationandlabelling

program(…)coveringarangeofhouseholdgoodsandappliances(includingwashingmachines,

dryers,refrigerators,waterheaters,lightingfixtures,andairconditioners),todriveenergyefficiencyandenablehouseholdstomakeinformeddecisions.

AccesstoUnitedArab

Emiratesmarketrestrictedforhouseholdgoodsandappliancesnotmeeting

requiredenergyefficiencyrequirement.Mandatoryenergyefficiency-related

10

RecentUNCTADstudies(UNCTAD,2022,2023)foundthattechnicalregulationswerethemaintypeofnon-tariffmeasures

usedbycountriestoregulatetheirtradeinrelationwithclimateaction.Non-tariffmeasuresaredefinedas"policymeasuresotherthanordinarycustomstariffsthatcanpotentiallyhaveaneconomiceffectoninternationaltradeingoods,changingquantitiestraded,orpricesorboth"(UNCTAD,2010).Technicalregulationshaveadirectimpactoninternationaltradeflowsandpatternsastheydeterminemandatoryproductcharacteristicsandperformancerequirementsthatmustbemettoimportthegoodstheytarget.ToensurecompliancewithWTOlaw,technicalregulationsapplyequallytoimportedanddomesticallyproducedgoods.

11GlobalWarmingPotential(GWP).

12Hydrofluorocarbon(HFC).

9

labellingrequirements

appliedtoimported

appliancetoinform

consumerchoiceslikelyresultinginmore

favourablemarket

conditionforenergy

efficientgoods.

Gabon

Aforthcomingregulationmusthavethecapacitytorestricttheimportationofincandescentlampsin

favourofLEDandcompactfluorescentlamps.Thisentailsproviding9millionlow-energylampsto

households,alongwith35000compactair

conditioningunits.

RestrictionofincandescentlampandincreaseinLEDandcompactfluorescent

lampsimport.

e)Market-basedmeasures

Inrelationtoclimateaction,market-basedmeasurescanbedefinedaspolicyinstrumentsthatusemarkets(e.g.,carboncreditschemes),prices(e.g.,feed-intariffsorsubsidies)orothereconomicincentivesordisincentives(e.g.,taxes)topromoteCO2emissionreductions.13

Themappingoftrade-relatedmeasuresinNDCsshowedthatREDD+accountsformorethan50percentofallidentifiedmarket-basedmeasures(30measures).MeasureslinkedtoREDD+wereidentifiedin53percentofmappedNDCsfromLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,and35percentofmappedNDCsfromAfrica.

'REDD'standsfor'Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradationindevelopingcountries.The'+'standsforadditionalforest-relatedactivitiesthatprotecttheclimate,namelysustainablemanagementofforestsandtheconservationandenhancementofforestcarbonstocks(UNFCCC,2023d).REDD+isconsideredbytheIntergovernmentalPanelon