英語語言學(xué)概論課件

英語語言學(xué)概論課程課件Chapter2SpeechSoundsPurposeofteaching:MakestudentsfamiliarwithspeechsoundsproductionandperceptionandsoundpatternsFocalpointsofteaching:HowsoundsincludingvowelsandconsonantsareproducedandhowsoundsarepatternedSpeechproductionandperception(言語產(chǎn)生和感知）Language:asystemofvocalsymbolsPhonetics:thestudyofsoundsPhonology:thestudyofsoundpatternsArticulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué)):thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics(聲學(xué)語音學(xué)):thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechAuditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學(xué)):thestudyoftheperceptionofspeechsoundsSpeechorgansSpeechorgans(vocalorgans)(言語器官):thosepartofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeechPartofthebodythatareinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:thelungs,thetrachea(氣管),thethroat,thenoseandthemouthThemouth:thetongue,theplate(腭)Thethroat:pharynx(upper)(咽),larynx(lowerthevocalfolds)(喉頭)Thevocaltract(聲道):thepharynx,mouth,andnoseThemouth:theoralcavity(口腔)Thenose:thenasalcavity(鼻腔)SpeechorgansPulmonicsounds(肺閉塞音):Theairstream(氣流)isforcedoutofthelungsandthenpassesthroughthebronchioles(細(xì)支氣管)andbronchi(支氣管)intothetrachea.Larynx:atthetopofthetrachea,thevocalfoldsandventricularfolds(膨脹帶)Voiceless(清音):thevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpasseasily[p,s,t]Voiced(濁音):thevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachother[b,z,d]Glottalstop(喉塞音):thevocalfoldsaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem發(fā)音器官的構(gòu)造及其作用世界上所有的聲音都是物體振動產(chǎn)生的聲波在介質(zhì)中傳遞的結(jié)果，因此聲音的產(chǎn)生離不開振動的動力、振動的源頭和振動的共鳴腔。語音說到底也是一種聲音，因而也離不開振動的動力、源頭和共鳴腔，只不過語音是由人類的發(fā)音器官各部分協(xié)同動作所產(chǎn)生的，研究語音的產(chǎn)生，就必須首先了解發(fā)音器官的構(gòu)造和功能。人類的發(fā)音器官可以分為三大部分：呼吸器官、喉頭聲帶與聲腔（口腔、鼻腔與咽腔），我們詳細(xì)介紹各部分的構(gòu)造和功能。1呼吸器官呼吸器官主要包括肺、氣管和支氣管。肺部的收縮和擴(kuò)張可以產(chǎn)生呼氣和吸氣的氣流變化，這種氣流變化不僅為人類的生存提供氧氣和二氧化碳的交換，而且為語音的發(fā)出提供了振動的動力。世界上多數(shù)語言的語音利用呼氣作為動力，非洲有些語言還利用吸氣發(fā)音。

2喉頭和聲帶喉頭由軟骨構(gòu)成，呈圓筒狀，上接咽腔，下接氣管，喉頭的外表就是喉結(jié)。喉頭軟骨構(gòu)成的"圓筒"中有一對聲帶，聲帶是兩片富有彈性的唇性肌肉，其前后兩端都粘附在軟骨上。兩片聲帶之間的空隙叫聲門，聲門又可以分為音門和氣門兩部分。由于肌肉的松弛緊縮和軟骨的開合回轉(zhuǎn)，聲帶可以放松或拉緊，聲門可以打開和關(guān)閉，從而產(chǎn)生不同的氣流狀態(tài)。聲帶的兩小片肌肉可以在氣流的沖擊下振動，這種振動產(chǎn)生了語音中的濁音。所以聲帶的主要作用是振動的源頭之一--濁音的音源。3聲腔聲腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分?？谇豢煞譃樯舷聝蓚€(gè)部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齒、齒齦、硬腭、軟腭和小舌。齒齦是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齒齦之后口腔上壁堅(jiān)硬的部分，軟腭是硬腭后面的柔軟部分。軟腭后面連接的是小舌，軟腭與小舌可以上下移動?？谇坏南旅娌糠职ㄏ麓健⑾慢X和舌頭。舌頭是口腔里最重要、最靈活的器官，它可以分為舌尖、舌葉、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌頭的最前端，舌頭自然平伸時(shí)，舌尖后面與齒齦相對的部分叫舌葉。舌葉之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分為前、中、后三部分。其中相對于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相對于軟腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌跟。

鼻腔位于口腔的上方，好像一個(gè)是樓上，一個(gè)是樓下，上腭就是樓板，而軟腭帶動小舌就像一扇活動的樓門。（解釋：口音鼻音鼻化音）咽腔位于喉頭的上面，是一個(gè)管狀的三岔口，上通鼻腔，前通口腔，下通喉頭和食道。在上述各發(fā)音器官中，有些器官如唇、舌、軟腭、小舌、聲帶等是能活動的，叫作主動發(fā)音器官；有些器官如上齒、齒齦、硬腭等是不能活動的，叫作被動發(fā)音器官。我們發(fā)音的時(shí)候，常由主動發(fā)音器官向被動發(fā)音器官接觸或靠近，讓氣流沖擊產(chǎn)生振動而發(fā)音。聲腔是人類最重要的發(fā)音器官，聲腔中又以口腔及其中的各種器官作用最大。Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscriptionSegmentsanddivergences(音段和分化)TheEnglishspellingdoesnotrepresentitspronunciation.TherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletterscanrepresent,andmanyEnglishwordshavebeenborrowedfromotherlanguages.2.PhonetictranscriptionTheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)(標(biāo)音法)

theinternationalphoneticassociation(國際語音協(xié)會)TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianOttoJespersenin1886,andthefirstversionoftheIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888.Consonants（輔音）ConsonantsandvowelsThesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoconsonantsandvowels.Consonantsareproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionoftheair.ConsonantsMannersofarticulation(發(fā)音方法):thewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltractPlacesofarticulation(發(fā)音部位):whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofairMannersofarticulation

（發(fā)音方式）1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音):completeclosureofthearticulatorsinvolved2)Fricative(擦音):closeapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheairstreamispartiallyobstructed3)(Median)Approximant(中）通音:anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butnoturbulentairstreamisproduced.4)Lateral(Approximant)邊（通）音:obstructionoftheairstreamatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouthOthers:Trill(顫音),Tap(觸音),Affricate(塞擦音)Placesofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）1)Bilabial(雙唇音):madewiththetwolips2)Labiodental(唇齒音):madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth3)Dental(齒音):madebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth4)Alveolar(齒齦音):madewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge5)Postalveolar(后齒齦音):madewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge6)Retroflex(卷舌音):madewiththetonguetiporbladecurledback7)Palatal(腭音):madewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate8)Velar(軟腭音):madewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalatePlacesofarticulation9)Uvular(小舌音):madewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula10)Pharyngeal(咽音):madewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx11)Glottal(聲門音):madewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachotherTheconsonantsofEnglishThemostcommonaccentintheteachingofEnglish:RECEIVEDPRONUNCIATION(RP)(BBCEnglish,OxfordEnglish).ItoriginateshistoricallyinthesoutheastofEnglandandisspokenbytheupper-middlesandupperclassesthroughoutEngland.SeethechartofEnglishconsonantsonpage44.VowelsThecriteriaofvoweldescription1)thepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,center,back2)theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalatehigh,mid,low3)thekindofopeningmadeatthelipsdegreesofliproundingorspreading4)thepositionofthesoftpalateraisedfororalvowelsandloweredfornasalizedvowelsThecardinalvowels（基本元音）

FirstsuggestedbyA.J.Ellisin1844./Thecardinalvoweldiagramisasetofstandardreferencepointsbasedonacombinationofarticulatoryandauditoryjudgments.Thefront,center,andbackofthetonguearedistinguished,asarefourlevelsoftongueheight(thehighestposition,thelowestpositionandtwointermediatelevels)./Eightprimarycardinalvowels:seepage47/Schwa(中性元音):theneutralvowel.Thetonguepositionisneitherhighnorlowandneitherfrontnorback.Vowelglides(元音音渡）PureorMonophthongvowels(純元音或單元音):VowelswhosequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationVowelglides:VowelswhosequalitychangesthroughoutarticulationDiphthong(雙元音):asinglemovement(way,tide,how,toy,toe)Triphthong(三重元音):adoublemovement(wire,tower)ThevowelsofRP1.Seethetableonpage52.2.Fourbasicrequirementsforthedescriptionofvowels:1)Theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low)2)Thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)3)Thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short)4)Lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded)Coarticulation(協(xié)同發(fā)音）Speechisacontinuousprocess.Soundsmaybeinfluencedbytheirneighbors.(map,lamb)/Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound(lamb),itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation(逆化協(xié)同發(fā)音)./Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound(map),itisperseverativecoarticulation(重復(fù)性協(xié)同發(fā)音)./Theformeraremorecommonthanthelatter.Broadandnarrowtranscriptions(寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）TheIPAcharthasasetofdiacritics(附加符號)forthepurposeoftranscribingthesmalldifferencebetweenvariationsofthesamesound.Inmosttime,itisnotnecessarytoindicatesuchvariationsofasound.Ifweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinthetranscription,itiscalledaBroadTranscription.AndtheuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailsisNarrowTranscription.Seethetableonpage54forthecomparison.Phonologicalanalysis(音位分析)Phonology:thestudyofthesoundsystemsoflanguage/concernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsounds/itsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedandtoexplainthevariationsthatoccurDifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology:Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Anexampletoshowthedifferencebetween

phoneticsandphonologyInthestudyofcoarticulationinEnglish,itisoftensaidthatthearticulationofthe[t]soundsinthewordsteaandtoodifferfromeachotherslightly.Inthe[t]ofteathetongueisbroughttowardsthefrontofthemouthincomparisonwiththe[t]oftoo.Thereasonforthisisthatthevowel[i:]ofteadragsthetongueslightlyfurtherinthemouththanthevowel[u:]oftoo.Itisvirtuallyimpossibletopronounceaclearandpure[i:]typevowelimmediatelyafterthekindof[t]soundintea.Somedegreeoffrontinginthesecircumstancesisphysiologicallyinevitable.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowthesetwo[t]’sdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.Phonemes（音位）Minimalpairs(最小對立體):Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofaword.e.g.[t]and[d]:tin/din,tie/die;[i:]and[i]:beat/bit,bead/bidTheseimportantunitsarecalledphonemes.Phonemesaretranscribedwithinslantlinesinsteadofsquarebrackets.Seethefigureonpage56forsomeoftheminimalpairsofEnglishphonemes.2.ThephonemetheoryPhoneme:unitsofexplicitsoundcontrast,builtontheideaofcontrastAllophones（音位變體）Phonemictranscription=“broad”transcription:Itonlyshowsthesoundsbyphonemes.e.g.peak/pi:k/,speak/spi:k/Phonemictranscriptionareplacedbetweenslantlines(//).Phonetictranscription=“narrow”transcriptione.g.peak[phi:k],speak[sp＝i:k]

[ph,p＝]aretwodifferentphones(音素)andarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophones（音位變體）ofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution(互補(bǔ)分布)becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext.AllophonesAllophony(音位變體現(xiàn)象):ThephenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsFreevariants(自由變體):Apartfromcomplementarydistribution,aphonememaysometimeshavefreevariants.

Forexample,thefinalconsonantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscase,itisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways(seepage59).Thedifferencemaybecausedbydialect,habit,orindividualpreference,insteadofanydistributionrule.Freevariationisalsoseeninregionaldifferences.Either,directionPhonologicalprocesses（音位過程）1.Assimilation（同化）:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighbouringsoundRegressiveassimilation(逆同化):AfollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsoundProgressiveassimilation(順同化):Aprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound2.PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesThreeaspectsofphonologicalprocess:1)asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;2)asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;3)asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessappliesPhonologicalprocessesAnarrowisusedtoindicatetheprocess.Phonologicalrule:/v/→[f]voicedfricative→voiceless/_________Voiceless(Avoicedfricativeistransformedintothecorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhenitappearsbeforeavoicelesssound.)NasalizationruleDentalizationruleVelarizationruleTheindefinitearticlea/aninEnglishEpenthesis(增音):theinsertionofsoundDistinctiveFeaturesSpeechsoundsaredividedintoclassesaccordingtoanumberofproperties.Oneimportantpropertyisvoicing,whichplaysanimportantpartindistinguishingobstruents（阻塞音）inEnglish.Becausevoicingcandistinguishonephonemefromanother,itisadistinctivefeatureforEnglishobstruents.Thereareotherfeaturestooandmanyofthemarebinaryfeatures(二分特征)becausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.(±voiced,±nasal)Obstruents:stops,fricatives,affricatesSonorants:allotherconsonantsandvowelsSeeTable2.5onPage67.SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征):thoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments(syllable/stress/tone/intonation)Linearapproach(線性方法)Treediagram(樹形圖)Non-linear,Multi-levelphonology(非線性，多層次音系學(xué))Thesyllablestructure:Differentlanguageshasdifferentkindsofsyllables.InChinese,syllablestypicallyconsistofaconsonantfollowedbyavowel.InEnglish,awordmaybemonosyllabic(單音節(jié))(withonesyllable)andpolysyllabic(多音節(jié))(withmorethanonesyllable).SyllablesAsyllablemusthaveanucleus(核心)orpeak(峰),whichisoftenthetaskofavowel.Wecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,therhyme(韻基)andtheonset(節(jié)首).Thevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus（核心）,theconsonant(s)afteritwillbetermedthecoda(韻尾).SeethetreediagramonPage69.Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllable(開音節(jié))whileasyllablewithcodaisknownasclosedsyllable(閉音節(jié)).Onlytensevowels(longvowelsanddiphthongs)canoccurinopensyllables.SyllablesSonorityscale(響音階):Thedegreeofsonorityofdifferentclassesofsoundaffectstheirpossiblepositionsinthesyllable.Sonorityscale:Frommostsonoroustoleastsonorous:Vowels,Approximants,Nasals,Fricatives,StopsStressStress:thedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Araisedverticallineisusedtoindicatestress.Stressed/unstressedsyllablesStressed:moreprominentduetoanincreaseinloudness,lengthorpitch.Stressisarelativenotion.Stressatthewordlevelandsentencelevel.Stressmaychangeoverhistoryandexhibitregionalordialectaldifferences.integral,formidable,controversy/laboratory,garageStressissometimesplacedonadifferentsyllableforthedifferentgrammaticalfunctionawordplays.Convict,insult,produce,rebelStressAlternationsofstressoftenoccurbetweencompoundsandphrases.Blackboard,blackbirdThereareprimaryandsecondarystressforlongwords.EpiphenomenalIngeneralsituationsnotionalwordsarenormallystressedwhilestructuralwordsareunstressed.Sentencestressisoftenusedtoexpressemphasis,surpriseetc.,sothatinprinciplestressmayfallonanywordoranysyllable.Johnboughtaredbicycle.英語語言學(xué)概論課程課件Chapter3LexiconPurposeofteaching:Makestudentsfamiliarwiththedefinitionsof“word”,theformationofwordsandthechangesofwordFocalpointsofteaching:HowwordsareformedandhowwordsmaychangeWhatiswordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwrittenThreesensesof“word”:Aphysicallydefinableunit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.Phonologicalandorthographic(書寫上)Problem:Whenliaisonandcontractedformoccur2)Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms:boy,boys;check,checks,checked,checkingLexeme(詞位):theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWhatiswordWritewrite,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFatfat,fatter,fattest3)Agrammaticalunit:sentence—clause—wordgroup/phrase—word—morphemeProblem:freemorphemesorwords:black,bird,air,craft,town,hallIdentificationofwords:Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairman﹡manchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience./Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.2)Relativeuninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Identificationofwordsdisappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.3)Aminimumfreeform:firstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfiledSentencethemaximumfreeformWordtheminimumfreeform,thesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.e.g.IsJanecomingthisevening?

Possibly.Hi,Darling,ShitDispute:Notallword-likeunitswouldsatisfythiscriteriona,theWhatismissinginasentencesuchas‘Dogisbarking’?

A.ClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsVariablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2)GrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsGrammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsClassificationofwordsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).3)Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords:Grammaticallexicalwords/closed-classopen-classwordsClosed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.ClassificationofwordsOpen-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansofAuxiliaryverbs4)Wordclass:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Eightorninewordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article.ClassificationofwordsSomenewcategories:Particles(助詞):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,lookback)b.Auxiliaries(助動詞):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclass.Thedifferencebetweenaverbandanauxiliary,seeexamplesonPage82.c.Pro-form(代詞形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(名詞詞組)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.

ClassificationofwordsPro-adverb:Hehopeshe’llwinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative(代處所詞):Jame’shidingthere,behindthedoor.d.Determiners(限定詞):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allQuirk,etal.(1985:253):threesubclassesofdeterminers:Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifthCentraldeterminers:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,theirClassificationofwordsPostdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基數(shù)詞),ordinalnumerals(序數(shù)詞),generalordinals(一般順序詞):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.﹡theiralltrouble,alltheirtroubleWithineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.﹡thethisboy,﹡allbothgirls.Butordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals,thefirsttwodays,anotherthreeweeksTheformationofwordMorpheme(語素)andmorphology(形態(tài)學(xué))Chairman:chair,manTownhall:town,hallBoys:boy,-sChecking:check,-ingDisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentThecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed.Morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Typesofmorphemes1)Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme(自由語素和黏著語素)IntermsoftheircapacityofoccurringaloneFreemorphemes:thosewhichmayoccuralone,i.e.thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselvesdog,nation,closeAllmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Compounds:polymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflowerBoundmorphemes:thosewhichcannotoccuralonedistempered:dis-,temper,-edTypesofmorphemes2)Root,affixandstem(詞根、詞綴和詞干)Poly-morphemicwordsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.InternationalismAllwordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,prefix(前綴),suffix(后綴),andinfix(中綴).TypesofmorphemesPrefix:para-,mini-un-Suffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geeseArootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.Freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith)Freerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.TherearerelativelyfewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.–ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit)TypesofmorphemesAfewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.SleepandchildsleptandchildrenAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折詞綴)canbeadded.Friend-infriends,andfriendshipinfriendships3)Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(屈折詞綴和派生詞綴)Inflectionalaffixesaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,toys,walks,John’s.Theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.TypesofmorphemesIncontrastderivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,e.g.cite,citation;generate,generationInflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchassmall-smallness,brother-brotherhood.Inflectionalaffixesareconditionedbynonsemanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence,e.g.Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet.Derivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.Clever,clevernessTypesofmorphemesInflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal(drums,walks,Mary’s).Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes(depart,online)orsuffixes(teacher,workable)Inflectionandwordformation(屈折變化和詞的形成)Twofieldsmorphology(形態(tài)學(xué))concerns:thestudyofinflections;thestudyofwordformation1)Inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness(有定性),aspect(體)andcase（格),whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.2)Wordformation:theprocessofwordvariationssignallinglexicalrelationshipsInflectionandwordformation(屈折變化和詞的形成)A.Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,thewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleformNouncompounds,verbcompounds,adjectivecompounds,prepositioncompoundsTheendocentriccompound(向心復(fù)合詞)andtheexocentriccompound(離心復(fù)合詞)Theheadofanominaloradjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatisitisderivedfromaverb.Thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.SeeexamplesonPage90.Inflectionandwordformation(屈折變化和詞的形成)TheexocentricnominalcompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,exocentricadjectivescomefromV+NandV+A.SeeexamplesonPage90.Differencebetweenendocentricandexocentriccompounds:Endocentric:Bloomfoled’stermforaconstructioninwhichatleastoneelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole.E.g.thatofrawmeat,whoseroleinlargerconstructionsislikethatofitssecondelementmeat;alsothatofmeatandfish,whoserolecouldbefilledbyeithermeatorfish.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.blackbirdisendocentricsinceitisahyponymofbird,whileblackcap(anotherspeciesofsongbird)isnot,sinceitisnotahyponymofcap.Inflectionandwordformation(屈折變化和詞的形成)Exocentric:Bloomfield’stermforaconstructioninwhichnoelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole:e.g.thoseofinWashingtonorwrotebooks.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.pickpocketandhardbackareexocentriccompoundssincetheyarenothyponymsofeitherpickorpocket,oreitherhardorback.Waysofwritingacompound:Compoundscanbewrittenasasingleword:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore.Theycanalsobejoinedwithahyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded.Somecanbewrittenwithordinaryspacesbetweenthetwoparts:washingmachine,trafficisland,counterrevolutionary.Inflectionandwordformation(屈折變化和詞的形成)B.Derivation:Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.SeeexamplesonPage91.Derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginaleitherchangedorunchanged.SeeexamplesonPage91and92.Formsderivedfromderivationarerelativelylargeandpotentiallyopen.SeeexamplesonPage92.InEnglishthereisusuallyoneproductiveinflectionalaffixperword,butmultiplederivationalaffixesareallowed.SeeexamplesonPa