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DECARBONISINGTRANSPORT

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks

Maximisingthedecarbonisationbenefitswhile

managingpotentialunintendedconsequences

ofelectricvehicles

KPMG.com.au

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks2

Summary

TheAustralianGovernment’sLong-TermEmissionsReductionPlanhasagoalofachievingnetzeroemissionsby2050.Insupportofthisobjective,theAustralianParliamentapprovedlegislationcommittingtoreducingcarbonemissionsby

43percentbelow2005levelsby2030andreachingnetzeroby2050.Theplan

focusesonusingatechnology-drivenapproachtotransitiontoanetzeroeconomy,whilesafeguardingrelevantindustries,regions,andjobs.Thisemissionreductionstrategyisbuiltuponatechnology-ledframework,encompassingaTechnology

InvestmentRoadmapandassociatedLowEmissionsTechnologyStatements.

Theappealofelectricvehicles

Electricvehicles(EVs)(andotherzero/lowemissionvehicles)arekeytodecarbonisingroadtransport.Withsupportfromgovernmentpoliciestoencourageadoption,EVsaregainingpopularityasasustainableandcost-efficientalternativetotraditionalInternalCombustionEngine(ICE)vehiclesinAustralia.AsEVsbecomemoreaccessible,theywillprovidenumerousadvantages,suchasdecreasedemissions,lowerfuelexpensesandenhancedcomfort.WiththegrowingavailabilityofEVs,thetransportsectorinAustraliaisstartingtoacknowledgetheirpotentialtotransformthewaywetravelwhilereducingourcarbonemissions.

EVshavethepotentialtosignificantlyaltertravelbehaviourbymakingprivatevehicletravelmoresustainableand

cost-effective.EVsmayalsoofferasmootherandquieterride,makingthemmorecomfortableforpassengers.Ifnotmanagedappropriately,EVshavethepotentialtoundoyearsoftransportandlandusepolicyaimedatreducingprivatevehiclemodeshare.

ItisexpectedthatEVscouldinduceadditionalprivatevehicletravelbyattractingtripsfromalternativemodes(suchaspublictransport)andencouraginglongertriplengths.Thispotentialincreaseinprivatevehicletravelcouldnegativelyaffectroadcongestion,increasetraveltimesandreducetraveltimereliability.Inturn,thiscouldcauseeconomiclosses,decreasedproductivity,andincreasecostsformovingfreight.Increasedcongestionwillalsoincreasefuelconsumptionand

consequentialemissionsfortheremainingICEvehiclesontheroads.

MeasuringfutureEVimpact

TogaugethepotentialimpactofEVsontravelbehaviour,KPMGdevelopedfuturescenariosofEVuptakeusingtheKPMGElectricVehicleInsightsandAnalyticsPlatform(EVIAP)andestimatedthetransportnetworkandeconomicimpactofthesescenariosontransportusers.KPMG’sanalysisindicatesthatacrossAustralia,economicbenefits

ofaround$280billioninpresentvalueovera50-yearperiodcouldberealisedthroughtheuptakeofEVs.However,theanalysisalsofoundthattheresultingincreaseinroadnetworkcongestioncouldreducethesebenefitsbyaround$80billion,bringingthebenefitsdowntoanestimated$200billion.

ComplementarytransportandlandusepolicyleversarerequiredtoensurethebenefitsofEVsaremaximised,andthatEVscontributetoachievingsustainable,productiveandvibrantcitiesacrossthecountry.

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks3

Contents

Summary

02

Introduction:impactofelectricvehicles

04

ProjectingtheuptakeinEVs

05

EVoperatingcosts

07

ModellingtheimpactofEVs

07

TheeconomicimpactsofEVuptake

13

ImpactonCO2emissions

14

Othereconomicimpacts

15

Recommendations

18

Acknowledgements20

Contacts20

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks4

Introduction:impactofelectricvehicles

In2022,Australia’stransportsectormadeupnearly20percentofAustralia’scarbonemissions.1Ofthesetransportemissions,60percentwerefrompassengercarsandlightcommercialvehicles.

Thereisaclearimperativetoacceleratethedecarbonisationofthetransportsectorthroughtheuptakeofelectricvehicles(EVs).However,without

complementarypolicyorplanninginterventions,thewidespreadadoptionofEVscouldleadtounintendedconsequencesthatmaycounteractprogresstowardsasustainableandproductivetransportnetwork.

TheseconsequencesresultfromthesignificantlylowervehicleoperatingcostsofEVscomparedtoInternalCombustionEngine(ICE)vehicles,andinclude:

–amodeshiftfrompublictransporttoEVs

–anincreaseintriplengths

–anincreaseinroadcongestionduetoextraroadtravel

–anincreaseintheperkilometreemissionsproducedbyICEvehiclesduetotheincreasedroadcongestion

–increasedurbansprawlasthelowerperkilometretravelcostsencouragespeopletolivefurtherfromoursocialandeconomiccentres.

WehavetestedandgaugedtheimpactsofthefirstfourbehavioursformetropolitanMelbourne,usingtransportandeconomicmodellingtools.

OuranalysisconsiderstheimpactsofadoptingEVsunderthecurrentpolicyenvironment.Thisexaminationaimstoencouragediscussionsaboutother

necessaryinterventionsandintegratedapproachestooptimisethetransitiontonetzerotransport,suchasdemandmanagement,integratedlanduseandtransportplanning,andthepromotionofactive,publicandsharedtransportation.

1

Reducingtransportemissions–DCCEEW

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks5

ProjectingtheuptakeinEVs

Variousstate-levelEVtargetshavebeenestablished,withNewSouthWales,Victoria,andQueenslandaimingfor50percentofnewcarsalestobeelectricvehiclesby2030.

WhileallstategovernmentshaveembracedEVsasthefutureofprivatetransportation,localisedandconsistentprojectionsremainlimited.State-levelprojectionscanhelpusunderstandcertainimplicationsandrequirementsinanaggregatedcontext,butsinceEVadoptiondependsonpersonalconditionsandpreferences,itisessentialtoanalysemarket

patternsandtrendsatamoregranularlevel.

KPMGhascreatedtheElectricVehicleInsightsandAnalyticsPlatform(EVIAP),whichoffersanoverviewofthemostrecentdevelopmentsinEVsandpredictsfuturefleetsharesbasedonobservedtrendsandsignificanttechnologyandpolicycommitments.

KPMG’sEVIAPtracksEVvolumes,technology,socio-economictrends,andpolicyefficacyatalocallevelinmajor

cities.OurmodelestimatesannualisedEVregistrationsfordifferentpostcodesinSydney,MelbourneandBrisbane,takingintoaccountthesocio-economiccharacteristicsofeachpostcodeandthestateofthetechnologyatanygiventime.Wethencombinetheseresultswithgeneralisedcommutingpatternsandvehiclereplacementratestodeterminefleetshareproportions.

Melbourne’sprojecteduptakeofEVsby2031

Theinner-citysuburbsofMelbourneareexpectedtoseestronguptakeofEVs.However,therearelargepartsoftheoutersuburbswhereEVuptakeisexpectedtobelow.Figure1,onthefollowingpage,showstheprojecteddistributionofEVuptakeby2031.Thisindicatesthatinnersuburbsandhigh-incomesuburbswillbetheearlyadoptersofEVs.

Beyond2031,thedistributionoftheEVuptakebecomesmoreevenacrosstheMelbournemetropolitanarea.

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

3.5%

10.4%

0.6%

56.4%

0.01%

22.6%

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks6

FIGURE1:PROJECTEDUPTAKEOFEVsBY2031

3064–Craigieburn

Shareofnewcars

EVshare2031

EVshare2021

3004–MelbourneCity

Shareofnewcars

EVshare2031

EVshare2021

Source:

AcceleratingAustralianelectricvehicleuptake–KPMGAustralia

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks7

EVoperatingcosts

AccordingtotheElectricVehicleCouncil2,EVsareonaverage$1,913cheapertooperateperyearthanconventionalICEvehicles.Thisisbasedonanaverageof15,000kilometrestravelledannually,andequatestoasavingof12.9centsperkilometre.

Ourmodellinghasassumeda4.0c/kmEVoperatingcost.WenotethatroaduserchargesforEVsvaryfromstatetostate,andthatinsomeinstancesthetotalperkilometrevehicleoperatingcostmayexceedthisamount.

Table1providesasummaryoftheestimatedvehicleoperatingcosts(VOC)forEVs,showingarangebetween3.3c/kmand5.0c/km.

TABLE1:OPERATINGCOSTSOFEVs

COMMENTS

SOURCE

VALUE(C/KM)

5.0ForamediumpassengervehicleTransportforNSW3

3.3

Forasmallpassengervehicle

TransportforNSW4

5.0

Foratypicalpassengervehicle

InfrastructureVictoria5

4.0

Foratypicalpassengervehicle

ElectricVehicleCouncil6

ItisexpectedthatthereducedoperatingcostswillbeamajormotivationtoreplacecurrentICEvehiclestoEVs.

OncepeopleownanEV,weexpectthatthereductioninVOCwillsubsequentlyresultinanincreaseintotalkilometrestravelledviaprivatevehicles,asprivatevehicletravelbecomesmoreattractivecomparedtoothermodessuchaspublictransportandnon-motorisedtravel(suchaswalking,cyclingande-scooters).ReducedVOCcouldalsoencourage

longertriplengthsaspeoplecannowtravelfurtherforthesamecost.

ModellingtheimpactofEVs

UsingKPMG’sEVIAP,thefutureEVshareoftotalfleethasbeenpredictedattransportzonelevelformetropolitanMelbournein2036and2051.ThisallowsustomodelEVsinastrategictransportdemandmodelasanewclassofvehicle.EVscanberepresentedasavehicleclasslikeICEvehicles,butwithgreatlyreducedVOC.

KPMGusedtheVictorianIntegratedTransportModel(VITM),togaugetheimpactEVsmayhaveonvehicletravelpatterns.VITMisamultimodalstrategictransportmodeldevelopedandownedbytheVictorianStateGovernmentandusedtoassistwithstrategictransportplanning,includingassessingmajortransportprojectsorpolicies.FutureyearscenarioswererunthroughVITM,wheredifferentEVuptakerateswerecomparedagainstno-EVfutures.Thesixscenariostestedwere:

–2031withnoEVs

–2031with40percentEVuptake

–2036withnoEVs

–2036with80percentEVuptake

–2051withnoEVs

–2051with95percentEVuptake.

2

FAQs-ElectricVehicleCouncil

3

TransportforNewSouthWales,2022,TechnicalNoteonCalculatingRoadVehicleOperatingCosts,Table9

4ibid

5

InfrastructureVictoria,2018,AutomatedandZeroEmissionVehicleInfrastructureAdvice,p99

6

FAQs-ElectricVehicleCouncil

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks8

TheseEVuptakerates,asprojectedbytheKPMGEVIAP,arebroadlyconsistentwiththeMarch2023IndependentExpertPanelforVictorian2035EmissionsReductionTarget,2whichrecommendedthatVictoriaphaseoutnewsalesofemittingroadvehiclesby2035.

VITMcoverstheentirestateofVictoria,however,forthisanalysiswehavefocusedontheimpactswithinmetropolitanMelbourne–wherethelargestuptakeofEVsisexpectedtooccur.

TheVITMmodellingindicatesthatEVsattractsomemodeshiftawayfrompublictransport(increasingprivatevehicledemand).Table2showsthatformetropolitanMelbourne,by2031theuptakeofEVswillresultina2.4percentreductioninpublictransporttrips,whichgrowstoa6.2percentreductionintripsby2051.

TABLE2:CHANGEINWEEKDAYTRIPSBYMODE(METROPOLITANMELBOURNE)

NOEVs

EVUPTAKE

CHANGE

%CHANGE

2031

Privatevehicle

17,202,000

17,250,000

48,000

0.3%

Publictransport

2036

1,734,000

1,693,000

-41,000

-2.4%

Privatevehicle

18,517,000

18,653,000

136,000

0.7%

Publictransport

2051

1,965,000

1,851,000

-114,000

-5.8%

Privatevehicle

22,725,000

22,913,000

188,000

0.8%

Publictransport

2,547,000

2,389,000

-158,000

-6.2%

Inadditiontothemodestincreaseinprojectedprivatevehicletrips,therewasapronouncedimpactontriplengths.Table3showsthattheaveragedistancetravelledbyprivatevehiclesisprojectedtoincreaseby3.3percentin2031

and9.2percentby2051,duetotheuptakeofEVs.ThisincreaseintraveldistanceisrelatedtothereducedVOC.Thecombinedimpactoftheincreaseintotalprivatevehicle(EV)tripswiththeincreaseintriplength,isprojectedtoincreasethetotalVehicleKilometresTravelled(VKT)by3.7percentin2031andby10.2percentin2051(Table4).

TABLE3:AVERAGEDISTANCETRAVELLEDBYPRIVATEVEHICLES(METROPOLITANMELBOURNE)

AVERAGEDISTANCETRAVELLED(KM)

NOEVs

EVUPTAKE

CHANGE

%CHANGE

2031

10.6

10.9

0.4

3.3%

2036

10.5

11.4

0.8

7.7%

2051

10.2

11.1

0.9

9.2%

7

P.au/file_uploads/Victorias_2035_Climate_Action_Target_Driving_Growth_and_Prosperity_WHpQMPvf.pdf

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks9

TABLE4:TOTALVEHICLEKILOMETRESTRAVELLEDPERWEEKDAY(METROPOLITANMELBOURNE)

VEHICLEKM

NOEVs

EVUPTAKE

CHANGE

%CHANGE

2031

128,054,000

132,728,000

4,674,000

3.7%

2036

137,825,000

149,635,000

11,810,000

8.6%

2051

163,396,000

180,123,000

16,727,000

10.2%

OurmodellingindicatesthattheincreaseinVKTwillincreaseroadcongestion,particularlyduringpeakperiods.Table5showsthattheaveragespeedsforthemorningpeakareprojectedtodecreaseby3percentduetoEVsin2031andby10percentin2051.

Bywayofcontext,VicRoads'TrafficMonitorreportrecordsa9percentdropinaverageAMpeakspeedonthemetromonitoredroadnetworkoverthe10-yearperiodbetween2002and2012.TheVicRoadsresultonlyincludesmajorroadsandwouldlikelybeasmallerdecreaseifminorroadswereincludedastheyareinVITM,demonstratingthesignificanceofthemodelledEVinducedspeeddecrease.

TABLE5:AVERAGEMORNINGPEAKROADSPEED(METROPOLITANMELBOURNE)

AVERAGEMORNINGPEAKSPEED

NOEVs

EVUPTAKE

CHANGE

%CHANGE

2031

35.6

34.5

-1.1

-3.0%

2036

35.4

32.3

-3.1

-8.7%

2051

32.6

29.3

-3.2

-10.0%

Thecombinationofincreasedprivatevehicletrips,increasedtriplengthsandreducedspeedsattributedtotheuptakeofEVsisprojectedtoincreasethetotalvehiclehourstravelledacrossmetropolitanMelbourne.Table6showsthe

increaseinVehicleHoursTravelled(VHT)overallweekdaysinagivenweek.TheincreaseinVKTandVHTwillhaveaconsiderabledetrimentalimpactontheperformanceoftheroadnetwork.

TABLE6:TOTALWEEKDAYVEHICLEHOURSINMETROPOLITANMELBOURNE

VEHICLEHOURS

NOEVs

EVUPTAKE

CHANGE

%CHANGE

2031

2,909,000

3,069,000

160,000

5.5%

2036

3,139,000

3,591,000

452,000

14.4%

2051

3,975,000

4,683,000

708,000

17.8%

Figure2depictstheexpectedpercentagechangeindemandinthe2031morningpeakperiodduetotheuptakeofEVs.Thewidthoflinesonthemapareproportionaltothelevelofdemandoneachlink,whilethecolourindicatesthepercentagechangeindemand.ThischartindicatesthatregionalhighwayssuchastheM1betweenGeelongandLaverton,M1betweenPakenhamandDrouin,theHumeHighwaybetweenWallanandCraigieburnandtheM79betweenGisborneandSunburyexhibitthelargestrelativechange(approximately5percent).ThisfurtherdemonstrateshowthelowerperkilometreVOCsofferedbyEVsincentiviseslongerdistancetrips.

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

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TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks10

FIGURE2:PROJECTEDPERCENTAGEINCREASEINVOLUMEONNETWORKINMETROPOLITANMELBOURNEIN2031MORNINGPEAK

Highestvolume

Lowest

volume

Greatestvolumeincrease

Leastvolume

increase

Source:KPMGanalysisofABSdata

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks11

Itisalsonotablethatthelargestrelativeincreasesindemandoccursinlesscongestedsectionsofthenetwork,

atrendinvestigatedfurtherinFigure3.Thisfigureshowsthemodelledpercentagedecreaseinspeedinthe2031

morningpeakduetotheuptakeofEVs.ThemostsignificantdecreasesinspeedareprojectedtooccurinmetropolitanMelbourne,ratherthanontheregionalhighways.Theseinnerroutesarealreadyexperiencingsignificantcongestion,andasmallincreaseindemandhasanoutsizedimpactonspeed.Thisspeeddecreaseaffectsallroadusers,includingfreightuserswho(allelseconstant)willexperienceadecreaseinproductivity.

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

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TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks12

FIGURE3:PROJECTEDPERCENTAGEDECREASEINSPEEDONMETROPOLITANMELBOURNENETWORKIN2031MORNINGPEAK

Highestvolume

Lowest

volume

Greatestvolumeincrease

Leastvolume

increase

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks13

TheeconomicimpactsofEVuptake

TofurthermeasuretheimpactsoftheprojecteduptakeinEVs,KPMGundertookaneconomicappraisalofEVsonroadusers.Tosimplifytheanalysis,wefocusedondirectuserbenefitsandaselectionofexternalities.Thesewerenarroweddownto:

–benefitsofreducedvehicleoperatingcosts

–disbenefitsofincreasedtraveltimes

–benefitsofreducedtailpipeCO2emissions.

Thisanalysisdoesn’texplicitlymeasurethewidereconomicbenefits,whichcouldaccrueduetoimprovedeconomicefficienciessuchasimprovedbusiness-to-businessorbusiness-to-employeeaccess.

Table7showstheeconomicbenefitsmeasuredingeneralisedminutes.Thatis,traveltimesavingsaremeasuredinminutesandtheVOCsavingsareconvertedfromdollarsintominutesusingmonetaryvaluesoftime.ThetraveltimeandVOCbenefitsanddisbenefitsarecalculatedusingconsumersurplustheoryandtheruleofhalfforvariabledemand,inlinewithAustralianTransportAssessmentandPlanning(ATAP)guidelines,andtheVictorianStateGovernment

guidelinesusingtheVITMEconomicModuleastheanalysistool.

TABLE7:ECONOMICBENEFITSDUETOEVUPTAKEPERWEEKDAYINGENERALISEDMINUTES

ECONOMICBENEFITS(MINUTES)

2031

2036

2051

Traveltimesavings

-5,295,000

-16,377,000

-28,166,000

VOCsavings

21,892,000

57,071,000

80,219,000

Totalbenefits

16,597,000

40,694,000

52,053,000

TheeconomicanalysisshowsthattheverylargereductioninVOCforEVscangenerateconsiderableeconomicbenefits.Theanalysisalsoconfirmsthattheincreaseintraveltime(duetoroadcongestion)greatlyreducesthepotentialoverallbenefits.Infact,theoverallbenefitscouldbe40percenthigherifthenegativeimpactsduetoinduceddemandcouldbemitigated.

OnlyEVusersexperienceVOCsavings,however,bothEVandICEuserswillexperienceanincreaseintravelcostsduetoincreasedtraveltimes.Infact,ICEuserswillexperienceincreasedVOCsduetomorecongesteddrivingconditions,asshowninTable8.Thishasthepotentialtoworsenthesocio-economicdivideandputcommunitiesfromlower

socio-economicbackgroundwhomightnotbeabletoaffordEVsatadisadvantage.

TABLE8:ECONOMICBENEFITSPERWEEKDAYBYVEHICLETYPE

ECONOMICBENEFITS(MINUTES)

VEHICLETYPE

2031

2036

2051

Traveltimesavings

ICE

-3,177,000

-3,275,000

-1,408,000

EV

-2,118,000

-13,102,000

-26,758,000

VOCsavings

ICE-3,068,000

-925,000

-395,000

EV24,960,000

57,996,000

80,614,000

Totalbenefits

16,597,000

40,694,000

52,053,000

?2023KPMG,anAustralianpartnershipandamemberfirmoftheKPMGglobalorganisationofindependentmemberfirmsaffiliatedwithKPMGInternationalLimited,aprivateEnglishcompanylimitedbyguarantee.Allrightsreserved.TheKPMGnameandlogoaretrademarksusedunderlicensebytheindependentmemberfirmsoftheKPMGglobalorganisation.

LiabilitylimitedbyaschemeapprovedunderProfessionalStandardsLegislation.

TheimpactofEVuptakeonournetworks