比較教育學英文資料

目錄ChapterOneComparativeEducation4FocusingQuestions4Introduction4IdentifyingtheField:AHistoricalLookatComparativeEducation7WhatIsComparativeEducation?7ComparativeEducation:TheField'sHistoricalDevelopment9ConceptualizingComparativeEducation:DefinitionsandPurposes11TakingStock:ACriticalAppraisalofComparativeEducation14TheConstraintsofInstrumentalism14InstrumentalismandComparativeEducation16NewDirections:APracticalApproachtoComparativeEducation18ComparativeEducation:AMultidisciplinaryFieldofInquiry18ComparativeEducationasFoundationalinEducation20AnIssues-OrientedApproachtoComparativeEducation21AFocuson“Dilemmas”asOpposedto“Problems”23TheSkillof“ComparativePerspectiveTaking”24TheValueofComparativeEducation25SustainingReflection27ChapterTwoTheoryinComparativeEducation27FocusingQuestions27Introduction28Structural-FunctionalismandAdaptationsinComparativeEducation30ModernizationTheory33HumanCapitalFormationTheory35MarxistPerspectivesinComparativeEducation38DependencyTheory42LiberationTheory47PostmodernismandPoststructuralism:TheoreticalChallengestotheModern50TheMeaningofPost-andtheRootsofPostmodernismandPoststructuralism50Postmodernism'sInfluencesinComparativeEducation53SustainingReflectin57ChapterThreeEducationalAccessandOpportunity58FocusingQuestions58Introduction58EducationalAccessandOpportunityasaFundamentalSocietalIssue59SouthAfricaandBrazilasFocalPoints60Brazil,SouthAfrica,andFactorsofEducationalAccessandOpportunityinPerspective62DemographicChallenges63ConsequencesofPoverty66Race,Culture,andTheirInfluencesonEducation69GenderNormsandBiases73WhatIsQualityEducation?ConsideringtheMeansandEndsofEducation74Fitness-for-PurposeversusTransformation:CompetingViewsofEducation'sAims76ExceptionalityversusConsistency:CompetingViewsofEducation'sResults80LessonsfromtheBrazilianandtheSouthAfricaExperience82AccountabilityandtheEqualizationofEducationalIndicators83ClassismandtheAcademicversusVocationalEducationDebate84StandardsandtheIllusiveNatureofQuality86SustainingReflection88ChapterFourWomen'sEducationintheTwenty-FirstCentury:BalanceandProspects88FocusingQuestions88TheContributionsofFeministTheorytotheUnderstandingofEducationalInstitutions90TheConditionsofWomen'sSchooling92PrimaryandSecondaryEducation95TheContentandExperienceofSchooling96NonformalEducationProgramsforPrimarySchoolChildren98HigherEducation99EducationforAdultWomen100TheStateandWomen'sEducation102DonorAgenciesandTheirSupportforEducation102ChallengesinDevelopingCountries104ChapterFiveThePoliticalEconomyofEducationalReforminAustralia,EnglandandWales,andtheUnitedStates107FocusingQuestions107TheFederalGovernmentForcesAustralianEducationalReforms109TheThatcherEducationalRevolutioninEnglandandWales114StateandPrivateInterestsPushEducational119ChangesintheUnitedStates119ConcludingObservations123ChapterSixGlobalizationandImplicationsforEducation125FocusingQuestions125Introduction125GlobalizationasParadoxRatherThanParadigm126TheLocal-GlobalDichotomy127AddressingtheLocal-GlobalDichotomy129MultipleConceptionsofGlobalization129GlobalizationasEconomics131GlobalizationasInformationandCommunicationsTechnologies133GlobalizationasSocioculturalPhenomena134GlobalizationasPhilosophicalReassessment135GlobalizationandItsImpactonEducationalIssues136GlobalizationandPurposesofSchooling136GlobalizationandEducationalAccessandOpportunity138GlobalizationandEducationAccountabilityandAuthority140GlobalizationandTeacherProfessionalism142DevelopingTeachers'ComparativePerspectiveTakingSkills143SustainingReflection145ChapterSevenApplyingFrameworkstoAnalyzeEducationalIssues145FocusingQuestions145Introduction145FourAnalyticFrameworks146Hofstede'sFramework146HarveyandKnight'sFramework147Frank'sFramework149Thomas'sFramework151BridgingtheFrameworkstoOtherDilemmasinEducation152Scenario1:TheHomeworkDilemma152Scenario2:TheStandardizedTestingDilemma153Scenario3:TheMoralEducationDilemma154Conclusion155SustainingReflection155ChapterOneComparativeEducationPatricaK.Kubow(BowlingR.GreenUniversity)PaulR.Fossum(UnibersityofMichigan-Dearborn)FocusingQuestions●Whatiscomparativeeducation?Whatarethebenefitofcomparativestudy?●Whatisthefunctionofadiscipline?Howisanacademicdiscipline〔科目，學科〕differentfromafield〔領域，專業(yè)〕?●Curiosityorinterestintheunknownisanimportantstepingettingpeopletoengageincomparativeeducationalinquiry.Whatregardingeducationinterestsyou?●Whatis“reflection”？Whatinhibitsorpreventsonefrompursuingreflection?IntroductionNationshavelongviewededucationasanimportantfactorinbothindividualandsocietaldevelopment.Withcountries'growingconcernsabouthowtheywillpositionthemselvesontheglobalstage,schoolsarefacingincreasingdemandstomeetanumberofoftenconflictinggoals.Diversestakeholders'viewsonschoolingcreatetensionsovereducationalcontent,instruction,structure,andoutcomes.Thedebateencompassesmanifoldconcernssuchas:●Egalitarianconcernforeducationalqualityandtheopeningofopportunityformoreandmorestudents●Economicconcernforequippingstudentswithappropriateworkplacecompetenciesandskills●Civicconcernforeducatingcitizenswhocanparticipateeffectivelyinpubliclifeinincreasinglypluralisticenvironments●GeneralhumanisticconcernfordevelopingthewholepersonthroughaprocessoflifelongeducationBecauseofthesehigherstakeswithinanincreasinglyglobalizedworld,schoolshavecomeundergreaternationalscrutiny〔仔細檢查〕regardingthewaystheycancontributetoorhinderanation'sprogress.CallsforgreaterschoolaccountabilityandeducationalreformintheUnitedStatesandabroadhaveledtocriticismoftheeducationprofessionitself.Inlightofnewglobalrealities,educatorsarepromptedtoreexaminethepurposesofschooling,theunderlyingassumptionsabouttherelationshipbetweeneducationanddevelopment,andquestionsabouteducatorprofessionalism.Althougheachgenerationhashadtodealwithsocial,cultural,political,andeconomicfactorsandtheirimpactoneducation,educationalreformsinthefirstpartofthe21stcenturywillbeshapedbydebateabouthownationsshouldeducatestudentsforaglobalworldinlightofnation-stateallegiances(忠貞，忠誠).Toillustrate,technologyandmasscommunicationarechallengingthenotionofnationalboundaries,changingeconomicrelationships,fosteringgreaterinterdependence,andchallengingcitizenstoreconsidertheirloyaltiesandidentities.Thequestionofhowtechnologymightaffecteducationalaccessandopportunitylocally,nationally,andgloballywillneedtobeexamined.Ross-Hoist(2004)effectivelysummarizestheopportunitiesandchallengesassociatedwithglobalization:Knowledgetodayisspreadingfasterthanatanytimebeforeinhumanhistory.Complexissuesarecuttingacrosstraditionalacademicdisciplines.Advancesincommunicationsletstudentsanywhereintheworldaccessthebestteachersandnewestideas.Studentshaveopportunitiesonceunimaginabletocollaboratewithpeersfromothercountriesinordertogaininsightandunderstandingaboutthosecultures.Thesenewopportunitiessuggest...thateducatorsaremorerelevanttotheprojectofeducationthaneverbefore:toscaffold〔腳手架〕newwaysofknowing,tohelpchildrenandyouthreachhigherandmorecomplexlevelsofunderstanding,andtoguidestudentstoachievinggreaterappreciationforculturalcomplexityanddiversity.(p.x)Toaideducatorsinacriticalexaminationofeducation,thistextoffersanissues-orientedapproachtoexplore,inaninternationalcontext,selectedthemesofeducationalimportance.Thisapproachemphasizesatleastfourpremises.First,educationalissuesratherthaneducationalsystemsbecomethecenterpiece〔最重要的特色，焦點〕forcriticalstudy.Asteachersperformtheirworktheyoftentakeforgrantedorganizationalsystemsandstructures,andthereforedonotnecessarilydealmeaningfullywithpredicaments〔困境〕anddecisionsthattendtoshapetheprofessionalworldofteaching.Second,thecentralissuesareseenaseducationaldilemmasratherthaneducationalproblems.Thisisappropriatebecauseitfocusesonthewaysteachersneedtoseekbalanceandthoughtfulresponsesforwhichsimpleruni-dimensional〔單一維度〕solutionsarenotavailable.Third,theseissuesareexaminedcross-culturallyinordertobroadenanddeepenunderstandingoftheissuesand,inturn,toenablepersonalimprovementsofeducationalpractice.Fourth,thetextusesanalyticframeworks.Thishelpsreaderstocritiquetheeducationalissuessystematically.Theenduringyetcontemporaryeducationalissuesthatsteer〔引領，掌舵〕thebook'sorganizationincludepurposesofschooling,educationalaccessandopportunity,educationaccountabilityandauthority,andteacherprofessionalism.Expressedasquestions,theissuesundertakeninthisbooktakethefollowingform:●Whatarethepurposesofschooling?●Whatis“equitableeducation,”andwhodecides?●whatistheappropriatebalancebetweeneducationauthorityandaccountability?●Whatfactorsreinforceorhinderteacherprofessionalism?Liketheanswersthatemergefromthesequestions,aninnatefeatureofanissueisthatresponsesorresolutionsaremultipleandambiguousinwaysthatareneverfullyresolved.Moreover,theissuesthemselvesarenotdiscrete〔離散的，別離的〕butoverlapandconnectinparticularways.Becauseissuesconnote〔包含，暗示〕debate,cleareridentificationofandfocusonissuesprovidesinsightsintothenegotiationthatcharacterizesmoderndemocracy.Theissuesundertakeninthistexthavebeenandremainatthecenterofpublicscrutinyanddebatewithinandout-sidetheUnitedStates.Theprimaryrationale,then,forexaminingeducationalissuesinacomparativemanneristobroadenone'sperspectiveandsharpenone'sfocus.Moreover,educatorsindifferentcountriesviewtheseissuesfromadifferentperspectivesoitisnecessaryforonetounderstandtheminlightofdifferingcultural,social,andpoliticalcontextsineachcountry.Wedonotadvocate,therefore,thewholesaleadoptionofonecountry'sstrategybyanothercountry.Rather,wetaketheviewthatawarenessandunderstandingofthetheoreticalandphilosophicalassumptionsunderlyingeducationalissuesandeducationalreforminvariousnationsarenecessaryforthoughtful,informed〔有根據(jù)的，明智的〕educationalpracticeineachnation.Thecountriesexaminedinthistext(Brazil,England,Germany,HongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegion,Israel,Japan,SouthAfrica,andtheUnitedStates)werechosenasawaytoprovidediversityandbreadthintheexplorationofsomeenduring,importantissuesineducation.Thecountriesselectedarenotmeanttobearepresentativesamplingofallculturesbutratherawayforthereadertoconsidertensionsordilemmasthatsurroundeducationandhowcultureshapesthewaysinwhichtheeducationalissueisperceived,understood,andaddressedinaparticularcountry.Byviewingeacheducationalissuefromtheperspectiveoftwodifferentnations,readerscanidentifyfactorsthatmightbemissedwhenconsideredwithinthecontextoftheirowncountriesalone.Specifically,readerswilllearnhowdiversepurposesofschoolingshapeeducationinHongKongandIsrael,howchallengestoeducationalaccessandopportunityinfluenceschoolinginBrazilandSouthAfrica,howthechangingrelationshipbetweeneducatorsandthestateshapeseducationaccountabilityandauthorityinEnglandandGermany,andhowdifferentorientationstoteacherprofessionalisminJapanandtheUnitedStateaffectteacherautonomyandprofessionaldevelopment.Byexaminingissuesinaninternationalperspective,readerswillrealizethattheissuesspannationalboundariesandthatpeopleofeverynationwrestle〔費力地解決、處理〕withdisjunctures〔別離，分裂〕betweentheirsocietalidealsandtheireducationalrealities.Wehopethatthistexthelpsreadersexploreeducationalchallengesinanin-depth,criticalway.Throughitsuseofperspectivetakinginmultipleculturalcontexts(i.e.issuesacrossseveralnations)andofanalyticframeworksfromavarietyofdisciplines(e.g.,politicalscience,sociology,andpsychology),thetextprovidesaninternationalcontextaswellastoolsforreaderstoenhancetheirwaysof“seeing”education.Eachanalyticframeworkalsoservesasafreestanding〔獨立式的〕devicethatreaderscanapplytoothereducationalissues.Exposuretonumerousframeworkscanhelpreadersanalyzeeducationalissues,andtheprovisionofspecificexamplesdemonstratehowtheframeworkscanbeusedtosystematicallycritiqueissuesimportantineducation.IdentifyingtheField:AHistoricalLookatComparativeEducationWhatIsComparativeEducation?Ingeneral,“comparativeeducationhasdevelopedasafielddevotedbroadlytothestudyofeducationinothercountries”(Kelly,Altbach,&Arnove,1982,p.505).Comparativeeducationdrawsonmultipledisciplines(e.g.,sociology,politicalscience,psychology,andanthropology)toexamineeducationindevelopedanddevelopingcountries.Comparativeinquiryoftenleadstoanexaminationoftherolethateducationplaysinindividualandnationaldevelopment.Italsoencouragesustoquestionoureducationalsystemsandtoexaminehowsocietalvaluesinfluenceourattitudestowardhowweeducate.Thefollowingquestionscanhelpcitizensseethedisparitiesbetweenbeliefsaboutthepurposesofeducationandtheconsequences--intendedandunintended--oftheeducationthesesocietiesprovide:●Iseducationabenevolent〔仁慈的，和藹的〕agent〔動因〕ofchange?●Iseducationamirrorofthelargersociety,manifestingthroughitsstructure,curriculum,andpedagogyinherentinequalities?●Doeducationalpracticesmaintainsocietalstatusquo〔現(xiàn)狀〕?Comparativeeducationandthecriticalperspectivetakingthatcomparativeinquiryaffords〔提供，給予〕canpromptdeeperexaminationofthetensionsamongsociety,development,andeducationandtherolethatcitizens,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,playintheeducativeprocess.Comparativeeducationcentersonthestudyofeducationfromcross-cultural,cross-nationalperspectives.Trethewey(1976)hasstatedthatcomparativeeducation“maytaketheformofastudyofresponsesinothersocietiestoproblemsthatappearvery[much]liketheonesyourecogniseinyourowneducationalsystem”(p.2).Althoughcomparativeeducationprovidesanopportunitytoexploreforeignculturesandtheireducationalsystems,itcanalsoprovidearefreshedcapacitytoappraiseaperson'sowncultureandeducationalvalues.Theforcesaffectingeducation--forcesthateducation,inturn,affects--canbedividedintothepolitical,economic,sociocultural,andtechnologicaldimensions.Byfocusingonthetenuous〔脆弱的〕relationshipsbetweeneducationandthesedimensions,comparativestudybringsgreaterclarityandinsighttoeducationalpoliciesandpractices.Becauseofincreasingconcernoverthedifficultiesnationsfaceinternallyandexternally,educationplaysanimportantroleinnationalprogressandglobalization.Epstein(1983)suggeststhatcomparativeeducationisnotjustanacademicexercisebuthaspracticalutilityinthereformofschooling.Thus,notonlycancomparativeeducationdeepenunderstandingthroughcriticalquestioning,butapracticalbenefitcanbederivedfromcomparativestudyaswell.Comparison--aprocessofstudyingtwoormorethingstoseehowtheyarealikeordifferent--givesattentiontocertainaspectsthroughthecopresence〔共同存在〕oftheother(Eckstein,1983).Comparativethinkingandinternationalperspectivetakingareessentialforcitizensinadiverse,globalsociety.Comparisonchallengesstudentstosuspend〔懸置〕judgmentsofthoseforeignsystemsthattheymightderivefromtheirownlocalizedandlimitedperspectives.Throughthedevelopmentofcomparativethinkingskills,studentsshouldbeabletoundertakeanalysesoftheirhomeculturesandsystemswithamorenuanced〔細微差異〕understandingofthevariousculturalfactorsatplay.Comparativeeducationalsoencouragesstudentsandeducatorstoask,“Whatkindsofeducationalpolicy,planning,andteachingareappropriateforwhatkindofsociety?”Thefieldofcomparativeeducationfocusesourattentiononwhatmightbeappropriateandinappropriatepolicywhilefosteringawarenessoftheideologies(definedassystematizedbodiesofideas)underlyingeducationalpractice.Hence,comparativestudycanalsocultivateapoliticalconsciousness.Broadfoot(1977)andParkyn(1977)assertedthatcomparativeeducationisafield,notadiscipline.Thisisanimportantdistinctionbecause,withineachspecificdiscipline,thereisanecessarycommitmenttoacertainprescribedmethodofexamination.Theworddisciplineitselfconnotesdedicationtoaspecifiedsetofrulesandstandards.Anydiscipline'sadherents〔擁護者，追隨者〕dedicatethemselvestotechniquesandproceduresbelongingtothatdisciplinewhileimplicitlyorexplicitlyrejectingmethodsandtechniquesofotherpaths.Thus,withrigorousadherence〔遵守，擁護〕todiscipline-specificinquiry,thereisatendencytolimitunderstandingstemmingfromthesubordination〔附屬性〕anddismissal〔不接受〕ofotherdisciplinaryperspectives.Comparativeeducation,however,assumesnosuchhierarchy〔等級制度〕;rather,asafield,itdrawsonavarietyofdisciplinestobetterunderstandthecomplexityofparticulareducationalphenomena.Thus,comparativeeducationservesasadevice〔手段，方法〕tomediate〔調(diào)解〕therelationshipsamongthefoundationsofeducation(e.g.,history,philosophy,andsociology)andtochallengestudentstoconsidertheinterplayofphilosophical,historical,andsociologicalfactorsastheyanalyzetheeducationalapproachesofforeigncultures.Comparisonhelpstoextendanddeepenourunderstandingoftheword;itisawaytoadvanceourtotalcapacitytothink(Eckstein,1983).Thus,comparativethinkingisaworthyendinitself.Whenappliedtoeducation,comparisonhelpsstudentsexamineparticulartheoriesormodelsputforthtoexplaineducationalphenomenaandencouragesinterdisciplinarycritique(Klein,1990,1996).Comparativeeducationalsohelpseducatorsdecidewhatissuesaremostimportantandwhatfactorsshouldbeconsideredtoimproveeducationalpractice(Epstein,1983).Thus,comparativethinkingisanessentialskillanddevelopsone'sabilitytothinkdeeplyandcomparativelyaboutthepolitical,economic,social,andculturallandscape〔主要特色〕affectingeducation,aswellaseducation'sinfluenceonthatlandscape.Thedevelopmentofcomparativethinkingandtheabilitytouseanalyticframeworksforcritiquewillremainimperativeintheyearsahead.ComparativeEducation:TheField'sHistoricalDevelopmentEachhistoricalstageofthedevelopmentofcomparativeeducationis“characterizedbyadifferentmotiveforcomparativestudy”(Noah&Eckstein,1998,p.15).Inthefirststageofcomparativeeducation--whichhasbeencalled“theperiodoftravelers'tales〔描述〕”(Noah&Eckstein,1998,p.15)curiosityandinterestintheunknownpromptedexplorationofdifferentpartsoftheworld.Inthesamewaythattoday'stouristsshareanecdotes〔趣聞，軼事〕regardingtheirtravels,peopleinthisperiodsharedobservationsaboutculturalpracticesandcustomsthatincludededucationalhabits.Thesecondstageofcomparativeeducation,associatedwiththe19thcentury,featurededucationalborrowing(Gutek,1993;Noah&Eckstein,1998).Educatorstraveledtodifferentnationstoobserveforeignschoolsystemsandtoidentifywhattechniquesandpracticesmightbeusefulintheirowncountries.Thesecomparativestudiesexaminededucationalsystems,specificallythestructure,organization,andmethodofeducationinothercountries.Thesevisitors—educatorsandpoliticians—basedtheirjudgmentsontheirownimpressionsofothercultures.Comparativescholarshavesuggestedthatthecomparativeeducationliteratureduringthistimewasprimarilydescriptiveanduncriticalofeducationalsystemsinothercountries.HoraceMann,apioneeroftheAmericancommonschoolmovement,visitedPrussia,partofpresent-dayGermany,inadditiontoEngland,France,Holland,Ireland,andScotland.Prussianeducation,whichwasofparticularinteresttoMannasasourceofideasforAmericanschools,hadinturnbeenshapedbyHumboldt'sefforttoborrowanddevelopphilosophiesandmethodsoftheSwisseducatorJohannHeinrichPestalozzi(Hahn,1998).Mann'sSeventhReport(1843),forinstance,comparedtheorganizationandinstructionalmethodsofeachschoolobserved(Hans,1967).WhileacknowledgingdifferencesbetweenthepoliticalandsocialmakeupofGermanyandtheUnitedStates,MannfeltthatsignificantfeaturesofthePrussiansystemmightbehelpfulinimprovingAmericaneducation(Trethewey,1976).However,Mannprovided“l(fā)imiteddiscussionofculturalcontextsinwhichattractiveideasorpracticeshaddevelopedandintowhichtheywouldbetransplanted”(Trethewey,1976,p.17).Althoughthereportmighthavebeen“thefirstattemptatassessingeducationalvalues”(Hans,1967,p.2),itneitheraddressedthecontextinwhicheducationoccurrednorfocusedonlargereducationalissuesacrossthesecountries.Marc-AntoineJulliendeParis,incontrasttoMann,providedmeticulous,detailedobservationsofforeigneducationsystems.JulliendeParisissometimescalled“thefirstscientificallymindedcomparativeeducator”(Bereday,1964,p.7)becauseofhismoresystematicapproach.Yethisendproductwasstilldescriptiveofaforeigneducationsystemandwasaimedatpavingthewayforimportationofeducationalpractices.WithJulliendeParis,aswithotherborrowers,“takingeducationalsystemsofonecountryandmovingthemwholesaletoanotherwasthoughtfeasibleinthenineteenthcentury”(Bereday,1964,p.7).Insum,educationalborrowershadpragmaticpurposesinmind:Theobservationsoftheseborrowers“wereutilitarianinpurposeandalsomelioristic〔社會改進的〕,inthesensethattheywerebasedoncertainapriorivaluesconcerningwaysofimprovingeducation”(Trethewey,1976,p.17).TheworkofJulliendeParisforeshadowed〔預示，預兆〕atrendtowardsystematicandscientificmethodsincomparativeeducation.NoahandEckstein(1998)assertedthatcomparativeeducationinthe20thcenturysoughttodistinguishtheforcesshapingforeigneducationalsystemsandtoemployquantitativemethodstoexplaineducation-societyrelationships.Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,MichaelSadlerargued“fortheacceptanceoftheprinciplethateacheducationalsystemisnotreadilydetachablebutisinsteadintricatelyconnectedwiththesocietythatsupportsit”(Bereday,1964,p.7).Thus,therewasagrowingconcernthatserioussocioculturalconsiderationslimitedthepotentialoftheeducationalborrowingpreviouslypromoted.ThisrealizationwasoftenaccompaniedbyatentativenessofcomparativeeducatorstoexpandtheiranalysisbeyondWesterncountrycomparisons.Thisoftenresultedinlimitingtheirpurviewofstudytocountriesthatsharedsomewhatsimilarhistoricalandculturalbackgroundsandtotopicsthatcouldbemoreeasilycontrolledandquantified.Forexample,overthecourseofthreedecadesofcomparativecollaboration,NoahandEckstein(1998)restrictedtheirstudyofeducationprimarilytoscientificcomparisonsbetweenWesterncountriesinrelationtoteacherqualificationsandtraining,business-industry-schoollinkages,educationalachievementmeasures,nationalexaminations,andeducationalstandards.Themovementtowardmorecontrol-orientedapproachestocomparativeeducationreflecteddevelopmentswithinthesocialsciencesingeneral.Popkewitz(1994)pointedoutthatsocietalissuesintheUnitedStates(laborconflicts,urbanization,andchallengesrelatedtocultural,religious,andethnicintegration)createdapresstowardpedagogicalsciencesintendedtoalleviatetheseverystrains.Therewasfaiththat,inovercomingtheseproblems,“thesocialsciencescouldassurethesamematerialandsocialprogressthathadbeengainedthroughthenaturalsciences”(Popkewitz,1994,p.5).Thesocietaldisruptionsoftheearly20th-centuryUnitedStatesforeshadowedchallengesinsocietiesworldwide,particularlythoseindevelopingcountriesastheyhavetakenonindustrializationandnation-buildingefforts.Accordingly,thesamerationaleinfavorofcontrol-orientedconceptionsofsocialsciencehavecharacterizedtheirgrowthandinfluencedthefieldofcomparativeeducation.Althoughthesearchfor“thebestideasandpractices”(Trethewey,1976,p.15)isstillapreoccupationofcomparativeeducationscholarstoday,ithasbeentemperedwithanawarenessthatwhatworksinonecountrymightnotnecessarilyworkinanother.Therefore,comparativeeducatorshavebecomemoresensitivetoindiscriminateborrowingandhavecometoplayamoreevaluativerole,recognizingthatsuccessfulimplementationofanyeducationalpolicyorpracticedependsonthecultural,historical,andsocioeconomicforcesoperatingwithinandamongcountries.“Theconceptofeducationalsystemsasorganicanddynamiccomponentsofsocietyisbasictopresentdaystudiesandaconstantwarningagainstuncriticalorpiecemealborrowing”(Trethewey,1976,p.19).Wholesaleadoptionofeducationisseentobeshortsighted,whereastheprocessof“interpretingobservedpracticesincontext,andofjudgingorpredictingwhetheraparticulararrangementorpracticecouldbetrans-plantedsuccessfullyinthehomeenvironment”(p.17,italicsadded)isencouraged.Inthewakeofthese20th-centurydevelopments,onemightidentifyathirdandmorerecentstageinthehistoricaldevelopmentofcomparativeeducation,namely,aperiodofinternationalcooperation,inthatcomparativeeducationcontributestointernationalpeaceandunderstanding(Arnove&Torres,1999).Suchcooperationhasbeenviewedasnecessaryforworldharmonyandfortheimprovementofthequalityofcitizens'lives.Internationalcooperationinvolvesshar