持續(xù)生物燃料的碳核算（英）-55正式版WN8

CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsINTERNATIONALENERGYAGENCYTheIEAexaminesthefullspectrumofenergyissuesIEAmembercountries:IEAassociationcountries:includingoil,gasandcoalsupplyandAustraliaAustriaArgentinaBrazildemand,renewableenergytechnologies,electricitymarkets,energyefficiency,accesstoenergy,demandsidemanagementandmuchmore.Throughitswork,theIEAadvocatespoliciesthatwillenhancethereliability,affordabilityandsustainabilityofenergyinitsBelgiumChinaCanadaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaKenyaMoroccoSenegalSingaporeSouthAfricaThailandUkraineCzechRepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIrelandItalyJapan31membercountries,13

associationcountriesandbeyond.KoreaLithuaniaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNewZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSlovakRepublicSpainSwedenSwitzerlandRepublicofTürkiyeUnitedKingdomUnitedStatesThispublicationandanymapincludedhereinarewithoutprejudicetothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundariesandtothenameofanyterritory,cityorarea.TheEuropeanCommissionalsoparticipatesintheworkoftheIEASource:IEA.InternationalEnergyAgencyWebsite:CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsAbstractAbstractThedevelopmentofsustainablebiofuelsisatapivotaljuncture.Theyarerecognisedfortheirimportantroleindecarbonisingthetransportsector–particularlyfortheirpotentialtohelpreduceaviationandshippingemissions,andfortheircomplementaritywithEVsandenergyefficiencymeasuresinroadtransport.However,large-scaledeploymentofbiofuelsalsoraisesconcerns.Theperceivedclimatebenefitofbiofuelsdependslargelyonthecarbonintensityoftheirsupply.Thus,soundregulatoryframeworkssupportedbytransparent,science-basedcarbonintensitycalculationswillberequiredtoattracttheinvestmentsneededtoscaleupbiofuelproduction.UsingcarbonaccountingforpolicymakingpurposesisfurthercomplicatedbymixedreportsonbiofuelGHGemissionresultsandthelackofconsensusacrossmethodologies.Thepresentstudy,preparedinsupportofBrazil’sG20presidency,examinessuchcomplexitiesanddiscussesregulatoryapproachesforaccountingbiofuelcarbonintensityacrossvariousregions.IthighlightsthemainreasonsforvariabilityoflifecycleGHGemissionsofbiofuelsandemphasisesthatimpactsoflandusechangeareamajorsourceofdisagreementacrossdifferentpolicyframeworks.Itconcludesthatpoliciesneedtoadoptpragmaticapproachestofosterverifiableandperformance-basedcontinuousimprovementofsustainablebiofuels.PAGE|3CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsTheCarbonaccountingforsustainablebiofuelsreportwaspreparedbytheRenewableEnergyDivisionoftheDirectorateofEnergyMarketsandSecurityoftheInternationalEnergyAgency.ThestudywasdesignedanddirectedbyPaoloFrankl,HeadoftheRenewableEnergyDivision.TheleadauthorswereAnaAlcaldeBáscones,whoalsocoordinatedthereportproduction,andIlkkaHannula.OtherauthorswereJeremyMoorhouseandTorilBosoni(HeadoftheOilMarketDivision).ThereportbenefittedfrommajoranalyticalcontributionofexternalLCA-expertconsultantsStefanMajerandSophiaBothefromDBFZ,theGermanInstituteforBiomassResearch.WealsothankChristianeHenningandKatjaOehmichenfromDBFZfortheirsupport.ThereportfedextensivelyondiscussionsandfeedbackgatheredatanIEAworkshoponSustainableBiofuelsheldinParis,France(April2024),andseveraleventsorganisedbytheCEMBiofuturePlatformInitiativeatthe3rdmeetingoftheG20EnergyTransitionsWorkingGroupinBeloHorizonte,Brazil(May2024).SpecialthanksgotothemembersoftheBiofuturePlatformInitiativeJimSpaeth(DOE/ChairofBiofuturePlatformInitiative),KeithKline(OakRidgeNationalLaboratory)andGerardOstheimer(Manager,CEMBiofutureCampaign).ValuablecommentsandfeedbackwereprovidedbyseniormanagementandcolleagueswithintheIEA,includingKeisukeSadamori,TimurGül,UweRemme,ElizabethConnellyandShaneMcDonagh.ManyexpertsfromoutsideoftheIEAprovidedvaluableinput,commentedandreviewedthisreport.Theyinclude:CountriesBrazil(LaísdeSouzaGarcia,HeadoftheRenewableEnergyDivision–MinistryofExternalRelations,MarlonArraesJardimLeal,DirectorofBiofuels–MinistryofMinesandEnergy,HeloisaBorgesEsteves,DirectorofOil,GasandBiofuelStudies–EPE,EnergyResearchCompany);EuropeanCommission(BiljanaKulisic–DGEnergy),France(GuillaumeBoissonnet,SeniorResearcher–CEA,FrenchAlternativeEnergiesandAtomicEnergyCommission);Italy(GiovanniPerrella,EnergyDepartment,MinistryofEnvironmentandEnergySecurity);Japan(MasashiWanatabeandTakashiHasegawa,MinistryofEconomy,TradeandIndustry);UnitedKingdom(BrendanBayley,HeadClimateandAgriculture–HMTreasury,PeterColeman,HeadofBioenergyandLandUseScience,PAGE|4CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsAcknowledgementsDepartmentforEnergySecurityandNetZero);UnitedStates(JimSpaeth,ProgramManager–BioenergySystemsDevelopment&Integration,DOE).OtherOrganisationsAzimBinNorazim(InternationalAirTransportAssociation,IATA),DavidChiaramontiandMatteoPrussi(PolitecnicodiTorino),TimoGerlagh(RVO,NetherlandsEnterpriseAgency),UisungLeeandMichaelWang(ArgonneNationalLaboratory),KeithKlein(OakRidgeNationalLaboratory),MarceloMoreira(Agroicone),RenanNovaes(Embrapa,EmpresaBrasileiradePesquisaAgropecuária),LucPelkmans(CapreaSustainableSolutionsandTechnicalCoordinatoratIEABioenergyTCP).TheCEMBiofutureCampaignbroughttogethercommentsfromindustrymembers.SpecialthankstoGerardOstheimer,manageroftheBiofutureCampaign.TheCommunicationsandDigitalOfficeprovidedproductionsupport.ParticularthanksgotoJethroMullenandhisteam:AstridDumond,LivGaunt,LorenzoSquillaceandPoeliBojorquez.KristineDouaudeditedthereport.ThisreportwasdevelopedinclosecollaborationwiththeBiofuturePlatform,aCleanEnergyMinisterialInitiative,forwhichtheIEAactsasfacilitator.PAGE|5CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsExecutivesummaryExecutivesummaryCarbonaccountingisofincreasingimportanceinbiofuelpoliciesaroundtheworld.CarbonaccountingisagenerictermthatreferstotheassessmentofGHGemissions,basedonlifecycleassessmentprinciples,andcoversthewholebiofuelsupplychainandfinaluse.GHGperformanceisexpressedascarbonintensityingrammesofCO?-equivalentpermegajouleofproducedbiofuel(gCO?-eq/MJ),whichincludesallgaseswithglobalwarmingpotential.Carbonaccountingisalreadyconsideredinpolicymaking.Roadtransport,asignificantgeneratorofcarbonemissions,isasectorwhereinthecomingfiveyears,nearly40%offueldemandwillbecoveredbypoliciesincentivisinglifecyclecarbonreductions,markingashiftfromtraditionalbiofuelblendingmandates.ThedevelopmentanduseoftransparentandinternationallyagreedGHGaccountingiskeyforthedeploymentofsustainablebiofuels.Sustainablebiofuelsplayanimportantroleindecarbonisingtransport.Theycomplementthecarbonreductionsofferedbyelectricvehiclesandotherenergyefficiencymeasuresinroadtransportandareexpectedtoplayanincreasinglong-termroleinaviationandshipping.Sustainablebiofuelscanalsoprovidebenefitsintermsofenergysecurityandjobcreation,includinginruralenvironments.However,large-scaledeploymentofbiofuels,especiallycrop-based,raisessustainabilityconcernsinsomeareas,mainlyrelatedtolanduse,netGHGemissionbalance,andunintendedimpactsonbiodiversityorfoodprices.Theseconcernscanunderminethecredibilityofbiofuelsasasustainableoption,andinsomecasesposeabarriertoinvestmentandtrade.UsingcarbonaccountingforpolicymakingpurposesisfurthercomplicatedbymixedreportsonbiofuelGHGemissionresultsandthelackofconsensusacrossmethodologies.Thepresentstudy,preparedinsupportofBrazil’sG20presidency,examinessuchcomplexitiesanddiscussesregulatoryapproachesacrossregions.Thestudyaimstoidentifymaincommonalitiesanddifferencesbetweencarbonaccountingframeworks.Itexaminesthemaincontributorstobiofuelcarbonintensity,theirimpactandtheassociatedlevelofuncertaintyinquantification.Thestudyalsoreviewspotentialinterventionstoimprovebiofuelcarbonintensityanddiscussespolicyimplicationsandpriorities.GHGaccountingishandledsimilarlyacrossmostbiofuelpolicyframeworks,exceptregardinglandusechange.Resultsfor“coreLCA”values(thatrepresentemissionsassociatedwiththesupplychain,excludingland-usePAGE|7CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsExecutivesummarychange)canvarywidelyamongsimilarbiofuelpathways,butmethodologiesarerobust,andcausesarewellunderstood.ThethreemaincausesforthewiderangesincoreLCAresultsarerelatedtoregionaldifferences,methodologicalchoices,anddatainputqualityandrepresentativeness.Whilesomeregionaldisparitiesreflectactualpracticesandlocalcontext(e.g.electricityemissionintensityorfertiliserconsumption),otherscanbesolvedbyaddressingissuesresultingfrommethodologicalchoices(suchasco-producthandlingmethodsorsystemboundarysetting)ordataquality.Impactsoflandusechangecanbeconsiderableandareamajorsourceofdisagreementacrossdifferentpolicyframeworks.Emissionscausedbydirectlandusechange(theconversionfromapreviousnon-croplandcategorytobioenergycropland)canbeobservedandquantified.However,indirectlandusechange(whenbioenergygrowthgeneratesanindirectexpansionofcroplandintohighcarbonstocklandelsewhere)dealswithinternationaleconomicdynamicsthatneedtobemodelledandcannotbemeasuredorverified.IndirectlandusechangeisthemaincauseofdisagreementaroundbiofuelsGHGaccounting,duetothehighuncertaintyofresultsandtheriskofarbitrarinesswhenattributinganindirectlandusechange(iLUC)valuetoacertainfeedstockandbiofuelpathway.Thiscallsforalternativepolicyapproaches.Biofuelcarbonintensitycanbeimprovedwithsupportivepolicyframeworksandappropriateverificationprocedures.SeveralaspectsofbiofuelproductioncanbeimprovedtoreduceGHGemissions.Forexample,inthecultivationprocess,whichisoneofthebiggestcontributorstobiofuelsupplychainemissions,severalinnovativesolutionshaverecentlystartedbeingintroduced.Theseincludeadoptingmoresustainablefarmingpracticeslikemulti-cropping,reducedtillage,andlow-emissionfertilisers.Applyingcompost,digestateorbiochar,canalsocontributetotheaccumulationofsoilcarbonstock.Emissionscanbefurtherreducedbyusingrenewableenergytosupplyprocessheatandelectricitydemand.Newtechnologiessuchascarboncapture,coupledwithbiofuelsproduction,canpotentiallyleadtonegativeGHGemissionsvalues.However,suchinterventionsarelikelytoincreasecostsandrequiremarketandpolicyframeworksthatrewardbiofuelpathwayswithhigherGHGemissionreductions,underpinnedbymeasurableandverifiablelifecycledata.Policiesneedtoadoptpragmaticapproachestofosterverifiableandperformance-basedcontinuousimprovementofsustainablebiofuelsPoliciesneedtoenablethemeasurementandverificationofdataforGHGaccounting.Toachievethis,theyshouldbeunderpinnedbymethodologyanddatabestpracticesthatsupporttheuseoftransparentandconsistentPAGE|8CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsExecutivesummarymethodologies.Relevantframeworksshouldfosterconsistentapplicationofsystemboundariesacrossdifferentbiofuelpathwaysbasedonvariousfeedstocks(includingwastesandresidues),manufacturingprocessesandcoproducts,aswellasthefossilfuelstheyreplace.Collectionanduseofdatathatcorrectlyreflectactualpracticesandregionalconditionsshouldbesystematicallyencouraged.Tosignificantlyacceleratethedeploymentofsustainablebiofuels,policiesshouldstimulateupscalingofthebesttechnologiesaswellaspromotingcontinuousimprovementbasedonup-to-dateGHGperformancemetrics.Morespecifically,governmentsshouldconsider:?EstablishingpoliciesthatrewardbetterGHGperformanceanddrivecontinuousimprovementTransparentandconsistentGHGaccounting,accompaniedbyrobustverificationprocessesasappropriate,shouldallowpoliciestodifferentiatetheperformanceofbiofuelsandpromotecontinuousGHGemissionreductions,regardlessofthefeedstockortechnology.?PrioritisingsupporttomeasureswithsignificantGHGreductionpotentialthatcanbequantifiedwithhighcertaintyandfosteringadditionalmeasureswithlesscertainquantificationwhileensuringrobustverificationsteps.WhilesomeGHGemissionreductionimpactsareeasiertoquantify,otherspresentlesscertaintywhenquantifyingGHGemissionreduction.Forthissecondgroupofmeasures,robustverificationandcertificationisrequiredtodouble-checktheireffectiveGHGemissionreduction.?Addressingindirectlandusechange(iLUC)concernsbyadoptingrisk-basedapproachesintheneartermandstrivingtodevelopgloballandusepoliciesovertime.Indirectlandusechangevaluescannotbemeasuredorverified,onlymodelled.Intheshortterm,qualitativerisk-basedapproachesofferingtheadditionalpossibilityofcomplyingwiththerequirementsoflow-iLUC-riskareagoodalternativeoption.ThesecanaddresspotentialimpactsandencourageimprovementinsteadofattemptingtoquantifyindirectemissionsintermsofgCO2-eq/MJforagivenbiofuelpathway.Inthelongerterm,policiesshouldevolvefrommodellingimpactstomanagingthecausesofindirectlandusechangebyenforcingeverywheredirectlanduseregulationsandsupportingimprovedagriculturallandmanagement.Carbonaccountingshouldbepartofabroaderportfolioofpoliciesencompassingothersustainabilitycriteriaandcompliancemethodstominimiseundesiredimpacts.Policiesshouldprotectfoodandwatersecurity,monitorandshelterbiodiversity,whiletakingothersocioeconomicfactorsintoPAGE|9CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsExecutivesummaryaccount.Biofuelpolicieswouldneedtobedesignedtobeflexibleduringperiodsoftightnessinglobalagriculturalmarkets,toavoidamplifyingthesizeordurationofagriculturalpricespikes.Enhancedstakeholderengagementandinternationalcooperationiskeyforincreasingconsensusoncarbonaccountingforsustainablebiofuels.ThisincludesfurtherstrengtheningactivecollaborationamonginternationalorganisationssuchastheInternationalCivilAviationOrganization(ICAO)andtheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO),fosteringcooperationwithagriculturepolicydevelopers,includingbiofuelsandrelevantcoproductsinbroaderpoliciespromotinganintegratedcircular(bio)economy,andencouragingconsistentprotocolsandregulationsforcarbonaccountinginvoluntarycarbonmarkets.PAGE|10CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsChapter1.IntroductionChapter1.IntroductionTransportfueldemandGlobaloildemandisforecasttoplateautowardstheendofthisdecadeasenergytransitionsgatherpaceandtransportfueldemandgoesintodecline(Figure1.1).Nevertheless,ledbycontinuedexpansioninairtravelandpetrochemicalfeedstockuptake,totaloilconsumption(excludingbiofuels)isforecasttorisetonearly102millionbarrelsperday(mb/d)by2030,2.6mb/dabovethe2023level.Someeconomies,notablythePeople’sRepublicofChina(hereafter“China”)andIndia,willcontinuetoregistergrowththroughouttheforecastperiod.Bycontrast,oildemandinadvancedeconomiesmayhavealreadypeaked–aresultofthesweepingimpactofvehicleefficiencyimprovementsandelectrification.Figure1.1Worldoildemand,2017-2030110Biofuels10090Petrochemicalfeedstocks80Transport,industrialandother70IEA.CCBY4.0.Source:IEA(2024),Oil2024:AnalysisandForecastto2030.Oildemandfromthetransportsectorissettodeclinefrom2026

owingtoefficiencyimprovements,rapidhybridandelectricvehicle(EV)uptakeandincreasedbiofueluse(Figure1.2).However,thepaceofchangevariesacrosstransportmodesanddependsonthepotentialfordirectelectrification.Globalroadfueldemandisalreadyplateauingin2024,andtotaltransportdemandisclosebehind.EVsalesaresettoremainonastronggrowthtrajectory,resultinginsignificantfuelsavings.PAGE|11CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsChapter1.IntroductionAccordingtotheIEA’sGlobalEVOutlook2024,salescouldrisetoroughly17millionin2024(comparedwith14millionin2023),withnearlyoneinfivenewcarssoldgloballybeinganEV(batteryelectricorplug-inhybrid).Thisascentissettopersistinthecurrentpolicyenvironment,withtotalsalesprojectedtoreach40millionbetween2023and2030,whenalmostoneintwonewcarswillbeanEV.Thiswilldisplace5.2mb/dofgasolineanddieseldemandby2030,withfurtherreductionsof4.7mb/dfromgreaterfueleconomy.Additionally,biofuelsupplywillgrowfrom3.1to3.7mb/dinthesameperiod.Post-pandemicchangesinconsumermobilitybehaviour(relatedtoremoteandhybridworkroutines)contributeafurther1mb/doftransportsectorfuelsavings.Figure1.2Biofuel,EVandfuelefficiencyimpactsontransportsectorfossilfueldemandforecast,2023-20308060BiofuelsEfficiencysavings40200EVsavingsTransportsectorfossilfueldemand20232024202520262027202820292030IEA.CCBY4.0.Source:IEA(2024),Oil2024:AnalysisandForecastto2030.Fossilfueldemandforlong-distancetransportmodessuchasaviationandshipping,whichislessamenabletodirectsubstitution,willcontinuetogrow.However,fuelefficiencyimprovementsareprogressivelyslowingdemandgains.Forinstance,whileglobalflightactivityreturnedtopre-pandemiclevelsoverthecourseof2023,currentjetfuel/keroseneuseremainsabout5%belowthe2019value.Consumptionisnotexpectedtosurpasspre-Covidlevelsuntil2027,withstrongunderlyingdemandforairtravelcounterbalancedbymajorstridesinaircraftfuelefficiency.Similarly,efficienciesrelatedtoInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)regulationsaresettograduallyerodemarinefuelconsumption.PAGE|12CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsChapter1.IntroductionTrackingbiofuelprogressBiofueldemandhasgrownsteadilyinthepastfiveyearstojustover4%ofglobaltransportfuelconsumptionin2024onanenergybasis.IntheIEA’smainforecast,basedonexistingpoliciesandfirmprojects,demandgrowthacceleratesfromthehistoricalrate,withbiofuelsmakingupmorethan5%ofglobaltransportfueldemandby2030.Infact,totalbiofuelconsumptionrises20%fromthe2023leveltonear6exajoules(EJ)(3.7mb/d)by2030.Biodieselandrenewablediesel(hydrotreatedvegetableoil[HVO]),blendedwithdiesel,accountfor40%ofthisgrowth,whileethanolblendedwithgasolinemakesup35%andbiojetfuelblendedwithjetfuelcomprisestheremaining25%.Mostnewbiofueldemandcomesfromemergingeconomies,especiallyBrazil,IndonesiaandIndia.Allthreecountrieshavebiofuelblendingtargets,risingtransportfueldemandanddomesticfeedstocks.Ethanolandbiodieseluseexpandthemostintheseregions.Althoughadvancedeconomies(includingtheEuropeanUnion[EU],theUnitedStates,CanadaandJapan)arealsostrengtheningtheirtransportpolicies,volumegrowthisconstrainedbyfactorssuchasrisingEVadoption,vehicleefficiencyimprovements,highbiofuelcostsandtechnicallimitations.Renewabledieselandbiojetfuelaretheprimarygrowthsegmentsintheseregions.Cropswerethemainsourceofbiofuelproductionin2023andareexpectedtosupport85%ofproductionby2030.Theshareofcropsusedforethanolproductionremainssteadybetween2023and2030.Bycontrast,theshareofvegetableoilsandresidueoils(suchasusedcookingoilandanimalfats)reservedforbiodiesel,renewablediesel(HVO)andbiojetfuelproductionisexpectedtoexpandconsiderablyby2030.Forinstance,residueoilsjumpfrom50%ofestimatedcollectablesupplyto80%by2030.Meanwhile,theuseofotherfeedstockssuchasagriculturalandforestryresiduesandmunicipalsolidwastemorethandoublesto2030,butaccountsforonly1%ofbiofuelproductionglobally.Usingtheseotherfeedstocksoftenrequiresnewprocessingtechnologiesthatarenotyetcommerciallyavailable,ornewagriculturalpracticesthatarenotwidelyused(e.g.growingconventionalcropsonmarginalland;intercropping;double-cropping;andotherapproachesthatcanexpandfeedstocksupplieswhileavoidingcompetitionwithfoodandfeedproduction).ItisalsopossibletoreducetheGHGemissionsofexistingcropsthroughactivitiessuchasreducingfertiliseruse(seetheImprovingGHGPerformancesection).Additionally,thereispotentialformuchquickerdeploymentgrowthifproposedpoliciesareimplemented,feedstocksourcesarediversified,andnewtechnologiesaredeployedinatimelymanner.UndertheIEAAnnouncedPledgesScenario(APS),biofueldemandis80%higherthaninthemaincaseby2030,whilebiojetPAGE|13CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsChapter1.Introductionfuelconsumptionisnearlythreetimeshigher,assumingthatBrazil,India,theUnitedKingdomandSingaporeimplementtheirplannedpoliciesandtheUnitedStatesmeetsitsSustainableAviationFuelGrandChallengetargets(Figure1.3).Fromafeedstockandtechnologyperspective,newtechnologiesandpracticesaccountfornearly15%ofbiofueldemandby2030undertheAPS,comparedwithjust1%inthemaincase.Technologiessuchasalcohol-to-jetfuelcouldprovideamarketforethanol,forwhichdemandwillhavebeenreducedbywiderEVuseandgreatervehicleefficiency.Consistentcarbonaccountingapproaches,whichwouldassignavaluetoGHGemissionreductionsallalongbiofuelsupplychainsandawardadditionalmerittotechnologieswithlowerlifecycleGHGemissionintensities,cansupportthisquickergrowth.Figure1.3Biofuelproductionbyfeedstock:Current,maincase,AnnouncedPledgesScenarioandNetZeroEmissionsby2050Scenario,2023-2030142.5X2XNewtechnologies12108Residueoils64Conventionalcrops202023Maincaseforecast2030APS2030NZE2030IEA.CCBY4.0.Notes:APS=AnnouncedPledgesScenario.NZE=NetZeroEmissionsby2050Scenario.“Conventionalcrops”referstocorn,sugarcane,soybeans,canola/rapeseed,palmoilandothercrops.“Residueoils”referstousedcookingoil,animalfats,palmoilmilleffluentandotherresidueoils.“Newtechnologiesandpractices”referstobiofuelproductionfrom(lignocellulosic)agriculturalandforestryresidues,municipalsolidwasteandoilseedsgrownonmarginallandthroughintercropping,double-croppingandotherapproachesthatdonototherwisecompetewithfoodandfeedproduction.Sources:IEA(2024),Oil2024:AnalysisandForecastto2030;IEA(2023),WorldEnergyOutlook2023.Nevertheless,thisamountofgrowthstillfallswellshortofthemorethandoublingof2023-levelproductionneededby2030toputtheworldonthepathwaytonetzeroemissionsby2050.Morethandoublingglobalproductionwouldrequirenewbiofuelpoliciesandmoreambitiousdeploymentofnewtechnologies.Inallcases,internationallyestablishedsustainabilityframeworkswouldfacilitategrowthbystimulatingtradeandreducinginvestmentriskswhilealsoencouragingandensuringGHGemissionreductions.PAGE|14CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsChapter1.IntroductionIncreasingemphasisonGHGemissionreductionpoliciesBiofueluptakeisstronglydrivenbysupportivepoliciesandregulations,basedonkeyobjectivessuchasensuringenergysecurity,reducingGHGemissionsanddiversifyingfuelsourcestomitigatetheimpactsoffossilfuelpricevolatility.Biofuelsarerecognisedfortheireffectivenessindecarbonisingtransportandotherhard-to-abatesectors.However,large-scalebiofuelusecanalsobeassociatedwithanumberofeconomic,environmentalandsocialrisks,potentiallyleadingtonegativebiodiversityimpacts,thedepletionoforganiccarboninthesoil,deforestation,objectionablelabourconditions,disputesoverlanduserightsandhigherfoodprices,amongothereffects.Itisthereforeessentialtoadoptsustainablepractices,advancetechnologicalinnovationsandimplementsupportivepoliciesforbiofuelproductionanduse.Policytoolssuchasperformance-basedsustainabilitycriteria,landuseplanning,adaptiveblendingrequirementsandotherapproachesareusedtomitigateimpactsinbiofuelproducingcountries.GHGaccountingandcarbonintensityBiofuelsustainabilitycanbequantifiedwiththehelpofGHGemissionaccountingtools,usedtocalculatethelifecycleGHGemissionsassociatedwithabiofuel’sproductionanduse.TheresultisexpressedingrammesofCO2-equivalentpermegajouleofbiofuelproduced(gCO-eq/MJ).CO-equivalentincludenotonlyCO222butalsoothergaseswithwarmingpotential,suchasmethaneorN2O.Insomepolicyframeworks,thisisalsoknownascarbonintensityorcarbonaccounting.Inallcases,carbonreferstoCO-equivalent,includingCO,methane,NOandother222greenhousegases.CommonwordingsinselectedpolicyframeworkstoaddressGHGemissionsPolicyframeworkCommonwordingEuropeanUnion,REDUnitedStates,RFSCalifornia,LCFSBrazil,RenovaBioCORSIAGHGemissionreduction/accountingGHGemissions/reductionCarbonintensityGHGemissions,carbonintensityLifecycleemissionsvalues,GHG,carbonemissionsGHGemissions,GHGintensityIMOPAGE|15CarbonAccountingforSustainableBiofuelsChapter2.PolicyenvironmentChapter2.PolicyenvironmentRegulatoryapproachesBiofuelproductionanduseisdrivenbysupportivepoliciesandregulations,foundedonobjectivesrelatedtoreducingGHGemissions,diversifyingfuelsourcestomitigatetheimpactsoffossilfuelpricevolatility,andimprovingenergysecurity.Figure2.1mapsselectedglobalbiofuelpolicyframeworksand