企業(yè)倫理學(xué)（原書第5版） 課件 英文 第7章　道德決策制定：工作場(chǎng)所中的技術(shù)和隱私

ChapterSeven:EthicalDecisionMaking:TechnologyandPrivacyintheWorkplaceCopyright?2021McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.ChapterObjectives1Afterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:Explainanddistinguishthetwodefinitionsofprivacy.Describetheethicalsourcesofprivacyasafundamentalvalue.Identifythelegalsourcesofprivacyprotection,includingtheconceptofa“reasonableexpectationofprivacy.”Discussrecentdevelopmentsinconnectionwithemployeemonitoring.Identifyandexplaintherisksinvolvedinafailuretounderstandtheimplicationsoftechnologyanditsuse.Enumeratethereasonswhyemployerschoosetomonitoremployees’work.ChapterObjectives2Afterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:Discusstheethicsofmonitoringasitappliestodrugtesting.Discusstheethicsofmonitoringasitappliestopolygraphs,genetictesting,andotherformsofsurveillance.Explaintheinterestsofanemployerinregulatinganemployee’sactivitiesoutsideofwork.Discusstheimplicationsofworldevents,likerecentimmigrationpolicychanges,onbusinessdecisionsaboutprivacy.EthicalDecisionMakingThis“telephone”hastoomanyshortcomingstobeseriouslyconsideredasameansofcommunication.Thedeviceisinherentlyofnovaluetous.WesternUnionInternalMemo,1876Introduction1

Thischapterreviewssomekeyethicalissuesoftechnologyandprivacy,withafocusonprivacyintheworkplace.Conflictarisesthroughtheregulationofpersonalactivitiesorpersonalchoices,orthroughvariousformsofmonitoring.Chaptersevenexplorestheoriginsoftherighttoprivacyandthelegalandethicallimitationsonthatright.Introduction2Nextcomesmonitoringemployeeperformanceandtheethicalissuesfrompotentialtechnologicalinvasionsofprivacy.Thechapterthenconnectstheissuesoftechnologyandprivacytothebalanceofrightsandresponsibilitiesbetweenemployersandemployees.TheRighttoPrivacyPrivacyisasurprisinglyvagueanddisputedvalueincontemporarysociety.Callsforgreaterprotectionofprivacyrightsincreasedwiththeincreasedusedofcomputers.Privacyrights:Thelegalandethicalsourcesofprotectionforprivacyinpersonaldata.Thereiswidespreadconfusiononthenature,extent,andvalueofprivacy.DefiningPrivacyTwogeneralandconnectedunderstandingsofprivacy.Privacyistherighttobe"leftalone"withinapersonalzoneofsolitude.Privacyistherighttocontrolinformationaboutoneself.Privacyisimportantasitestablishestheboundarybetweenindividualsanddefinesone’sindividuality.Manypeoplebelievetherighttobe"leftalone"istoobroadandnotfeasibleintheworkplace.Therefore,thecontrolofpersonalinformationisabetterdefinition.Arightofprivacyimpliescontrolofallpersonalinformation.Perhapsthechoiceoflimitationorcontrolisone’ssenseofprivacy.EthicalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy1Therighttoprivacyisfoundedintheindividual’sfundamentalrighttoautonomy.Thisrightisrestrictedbyaboundaryofreciprocalobligation.Reciprocalobligation:Whenanindividualexpectsrespectforhisorherpersonalautonomy,heorshehasareciprocalobligationtorespecttheautonomyofothers.Intheworkplace,reciprocalobligationimpliesthat:Anemployeehasanobligationtorespectthegoalsandpropertyoftheemployer.Theemployerhasareciprocalobligationtorespecttherightsoftheemployee,includingtherighttoprivacy.EthicalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy2Thereisanapproachtoethicalanalysisthatseekstodifferentiatebetween:Thosevaluesthatarefundamentalacrosscultureandtheory,hypernorms.Thosevaluesthataredeterminedwithinmoralfreespaceandarenothypernorms.Individualprivacyisatthecoreofmanyofthebasicminimalrightsorhypernorms.Thevalueofprivacytocivilizedsocietyisasgreatasthevalueofthevarioushypernormstocivilizedexistence.Thefailuretoprotectprivacymayleadtoaninabilitytoprotectpersonalfreedomandautonomy.EthicalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy3Legalanalysisofprivacyusingpropertyrightsperspectiveyieldsadditionalinsight."Property"isanindividual’slifeandallnon-procreativederivativesofherorhislife.Derivativesmayincludethoughtsandideas,aswellaspersonalinformation.Propertyrightsmeansdeterminingwhomaintainscontrolovertangiblesandintangibles,includingpersonalinformation.Whydoweassumeanindividualhasunfetteredrightstohisorherpersonalinformation?Privatepropertyrightsdependontheexistenceandenforcementofasetofrulesthatdefinewhohasarighttoundertakewhichactivitiesontheirowninitiativeandhowthereturnsfromthoseactivitieswillbeallocated.Thelegalrulesremainvague.LegalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy1Privacycanbelegallyprotectedinthreeways:Bytheconstitution,Bystatutes,and,Bythecommonlaw.TheConstitution’sFourthAmendmentprotectionagainstunreasonablesearchandseizureappliestothepublic-sectorworkplace.LegalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy2TheElectronicCommunicationsPrivacyAct(ECPA)of1986prohibitsunauthorizedaccessofstoredcommunications.ECPAimpactselectronicmonitoringonlybythirdpartiesandnotbyemployersSomestatesusestatutesbutapplicationtoprivate-sectororganizationsislimited,uncertain,ornotincludedatall.Intrusionintoseclusionviolationoccurswhensomeoneintentionallyintrudesontheprivateaffairsofanotherwhentheintrusionwouldbehighlyoffensivetoareasonableperson.LegalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy3Manyrecentcourtdecisionswithregardtomonitoringseemtodependonwhethertheworkerhadnoticethatthemonitoringmightoccur.Thebasisforfindinganinvasionofprivacyisoftentheemployee’slegitimateandreasonableexpectationofprivacy.Iftheemployeehasactualnotice,thentheretrulyisnorealexpectationofprivacy.Thecompanyisallowedtomonitorevenwhenitpromisesnottomonitor.LegalSourcesofaRighttoPrivacy4ConnecticutandDelawarearetheonlytwostatesthatrequireemployerstonotifyworkerswhentheyarebeingmonitored.2019:Twenty-sixstates(plusGuam)prohibitemployersfromobtainingsocialmediapasswordsfromprospectiveorcurrentemployees.Table7.1:LegalStatusofEmployeeMonitoring1MethodsofCommunicationStatusTelephonecalls Monitoringispermittedinconnectionwithqualitycontrol.Noticetothepartiesonthecallisoftenrequiredbystatelaw,thoughfederallawallowsemployerstomonitorworkcallswithoutnotice.Iftheemployerrealizesthatthecallispersonal,monitoringmustceaseimmediately. Emailmessages Undermostcircumstances,employersmaymonitoremployeeemails.Eveninsituationswheretheemployerclaimsthatitwillnot,itsrighttomonitorhasbeenupheld.However,wheretheemployee’sreasonableexpectationofprivacyisincreased(suchasapassword-protectedaccount),thismayimpactthecourt’sdecision. Table7.1:LegalStatusofEmployeeMonitoring2MethodsofCommunicationStatusVoice-mail-systemmessages Thoughnotyetcompletelysettled,thelawhereappearstobesimilartotheanalysisofemailmessages. InternetuseWheretheemployerhasprovidedtheequipmentand/oraccesstotheinternet,theemployermaytrack,block,orreviewinternetuse.

GlobalApplications1PrivacyprotectionismoredifficultgiventheimplicationsoftheEuropeanUnion’sGeneralDataProtectionRegulation(GDPR).Providesthatpersonalinformationcannotbecollectedorsharedbycompanieswithoutindividuals’permission.Informationaboutwhoisusingthedataandforwhatpurposeitisbeingcollectedmustbeprovidedinaclear,easilyunderstandablemanner.Consumershavetherighttoreviewthedataandcorrectinaccuracies.GDPRincludesheavyregulatorypowersbyimposingheavyfinesforthosecompaniesthatbreaktheseregulations.UndertheGDPR,theEuropeanUniondoesnotallowthetransferofdataonitscitizensoutsideofthecountryunlessthecountryisdeemedtohaveadequatedataprivacylaws.TheEuropeanUnionPrivacyShield1UndertheEUPrivacyShield:WhenusingEuropeans’data,U.S.intelligenceserviceswillhavetoadheretothenewlimitsandoversightmechanism.TheU.S.StateDepartmentwillhavetoemployanewwatchdogtohandlecomplaintsaboutintelligence-relatedmatters.Companiesmustself-certifycompliancewiththePrivacyShieldanditsstatedprinciples.Certificationsmustberenewedannually.TheEuropeanUnionPrivacyShield2CompaniesmustpubliclydisplaytheirprivacypoliciesthatshowcompliancewithEUlaw.Companieswillhavetoresolvecomplaintswithin45daysofbeingfiled.Companieswillhavetoupdatetheirprivacypoliciestoexplainhowpeoplecanaccesstheseservices.CompanieswillfacemorerestrictionsonbeingabletoforwardEuropeans’personaldatatoothercompanies.GlobalApplications2Giventhenatureofthelegaluncertaintyorinstabilityconcerningthesechallengingareasofinformationgathering,perhapstheonlysourceofananswerisethics.Insummary.Employeeprivacyisviolatedwhenever:Employersinfringeuponpersonaldecisionsthatarenotrelevanttotheemploymentcontract–whetherthecontractisimpliedorexplicit.Personalinformationthatisnotrelevanttothatcontractiscollected,stored,orusedwithouttheinformedconsentoftheemployee.Further,becauseconsentplaysapivotalroleinthisunderstanding,theburdenofproofrestswiththeemployertoestablishtherelevancyofpersonaldecisionsandinformationatissue.EthicalDecisionMaking3Technologyisnothing.What’simportantisthatyouhaveafaithinpeople,thatthey’rebasicallygoodandsmart,andifyougivethemtools,they’lldowonderfulthingswiththem.SteveJobs,Chair,CEOandCo-FounderofAppleIncorporatedLinkingPrivacytotheEthicalUseofTechnologyNewtechnologychallengesprivacyinunimaginableways.Newtechnology,however,doesnotnecessarilyimpactourvaluejudgments.Butnewtechnologyinsteadprovidesnewwaystogathertheinformationonwhichtobasethem.Thelackoflegislationmeansworkplacedisputesbecomeamatterofcontractlaw.Doweneed"newethics"forthis"neweconomy"?No,becausethesamevaluesoneheldunderpreviouscircumstancesshouldpermeateandrelatetolatercircumstances.However,theperspectiveonebringstoeachexperienceisimpactedbytheunderstandinganduseofnewtechnology.InformationandPrivacy1Tomakeeffectivedecisions,businessesmustanticipatetheperceptionsoftheirstakeholders.Google’smottois:"Don’tbeevil."Yet,GooglecausedcontroversywithitsGmailprivacypolicy.Googleminesauser'semailcontentsandusestheinformationfortargetedadvertising.Itarguesthatusershave‘noreasonableexpectation’ofprivacy.Byfailingtofullycomprehendandplanforitsstakeholders’perceptionsoftheprograms,Googlebreachedethicalboundariesandalsosufferedpublicbacklash.InformationandPrivacy2Moralrequirementsthatneedtobeimposedoninformationiftechnologyisdependentoninformation.Truthfulnessandaccuracy.Thepersonprovidingtheinformationmustbetruthful.Respectforprivacy.Thereceiveroftheinformationmustuseethicallimitsofindividuals'privacy.Respectforpropertyandsafetyrights.Areasofpotentialvulnerability,includingnetworksecurity,sabotage,theft,andimpersonationareenhancedandmustthereforebeprotected.Accountability.Technologyallowsforanonymityrequiringgreaterpersonalresponsibilityandaccountability.ManagingEmployeesThroughMonitoring1Monitoringemployees’workisoneofthemostprevalentformsofinformationgatheringintheworkplace.Technologyaffordsaneffective,lowcostmonitoringability.SurveyconductedbytheAmericanAcademyofManagementfoundthatnearly80%oflargecompaniesgatherinformationthroughemailmonitoringandalsointernetusemonitoring.ManagingEmployeesThroughMonitoring2Employeeshavecometoexpectthattheiremailsarethepropertyof—oratleastsubjecttosearchby—theiremployers.Internetusemonitoringisevolvingassocialmediagrows.Employersareconcernedaboutemployeeproductivityandwhethertheiremployeesmaybringtoomuchoftheirpersonallivestotheworkplace.Employeemonitoringchallengesbodyautonomybyusingbiotrackingtechnologyandbadgesthatmonitorthetone,gender,andlivelocationofemployees.Theseapplicationscanbecomeintrusiveforemployees.ManagingEmployeesThroughMonitoring3Whenmanaginginformation,ethicalissuesmaynotbeobvious.Whenwedonotcompletelyunderstandthetechnologyinvolved,wemightnotunderstandtheethicalimplicationsofourdecisions.Welosetheabilitytoprotectourowninformationeffectivelybecausewemaynotunderstand:Theimpactonourautonomy,Thecontrolofourinformation,Ourreciprocalobligations,orWhatmightbebestforourpersonalexistence.ManagingEmployeesThroughMonitoring4Ethicalissuesareenhancedbytheknowledgegapexistingbetweenpeoplewhodounderstandthetechnologyandotherswhoareunabletoprotectthemselvesbecausetheydonotunderstand.Technologyallowsforaccesstoinformationthatwasneverbeforepossible.Itcanbedonewithouttherecipient'sknowledgeorevenunintentionally.Technologymeansweareseldomoutoftheboundariesofourworkplace.Ourtotalaccessibilitycreatesnewexpectations,andthereforeconflicts.ManagingEmployeesThroughMonitoring5Continuoustechnologicalaccessibilityblursthelinesbetweenpersonalandprofessionallives.Employeesmightnotappreciate24by7accessibilitybecauseoftheirinterestinsocialmediaandbeingcaughtactiveonit.Technologyresultsinmorefacelesscontacts.E-mail,texting,andsocialmediapostsdonotcarrythesameweightas'puttingitinwriting.'Giventheeaseandinformalityofelectroniccommunicationwearemorecarelesswithourcommunications.WhyDoFirmsMonitorTechnologyUsage?1Employersneedtomanagetheirworkplacesto:Placeworkersinappropriatepositions,Toensurecompliancewithaffirmativeactionrequirements,orToadministerworkplacebenefits.Allowsmanagerstoensureeffectiveperformancebypreventinglostproductivityduetoinappropriatetechnologyuseiftheemployeeisawarethathewillbemonitored.WhyDoFirmsMonitorTechnologyUsage?2Monitoringoffersemployersamethodtoprotectitsotherresources.Protectsproprietaryinformationandguardsagainsttheft.Protectstheirequipmentandbandwidth.Protectsagainstlegalliability.ManagingEmployeesThroughMonitoring28%ofemployershavefiredworkersforusingtheInternetduringtheworkdayfornon-work-relatedactivity.18%havefiredworkersbecauseofpostsonsocialmediaRacist,sexist,orinappropriatepostsorcomments.MonitoringEmployeesThroughDrugTesting1Employershavehadalonghistoryofmonitoringbydrugtestingthanbytechnologymonitoring.Theemployerhasastrongargumentinfavorofdrugtestingbasedonthelaw.Theemployerwouldbeheldresponsibleforlegalviolationsthatitsemployeescommitandhence,theirinterestincontrollingeveryaspectincreases.Employeesmayarguethattheirdrugusageisrelevantonlyifitimpactstheirjobperformance.Thelegalizationofmarijuanainsomeplaceshasmadeforcomplicatedworkplacedilemmas.MonitoringEmployeesThroughDrugTesting2Courtsinseveralstateshaveruledthatanemployeetestingpositiveformarijuanamayprevailagainstanemployerundercertaincircumstances,eveniftheemployerisenforcingdrug-freeworkplacepolicies.Determiningwhentheuseoccurredisstillthedifficultquestiontoanswer.Employersincountrieswheremarijuanaislegalizedorwherepossessionispermittedmayprohibititsuseatworkandemployeesfrombeingatworkwhileimpaired.Therefore,employersmaytesttheirworkerstodetermineimpairment.MonitoringEmployeesThroughDrugTesting3Employersmightconducttestingonaregularbasisbasedoncharacteristicsrelatedtotheemployee'sjobperformanceandworkplacebehavior.ThesecharacteristicsareofferedbytheNationalCouncilonAlcoholismandDrugDependenceas“warningsignsofdruguse.”Testingoccursbothduringemploymentandalsopreemployment.Forthecompaniesthathavedrugtestingrequirements,therearelegalrealitiestoconsider.TheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA)prohibitsemployersfrominquiringaboutanemployee’suseofprescriptiondrugsunlesstheemployerhasareasonablebasisforbelievingthattheworkerposesasafetythreatorisunabletodohisorherjob.OtherFormsofMonitoring1Employersarelimitedintheircollectionofinformationthroughotherformsoftesting,suchaspolygraphsormedicaltests.MedicalinformationisprotectedbytheAmericanswithDisabilitiesActbutalsobytheHealthInsurancePortabilityandAccountabilityAct(HIPAA).HIPPAstipulatesthatemployerscannotuse"protectedhealthinformation"withoutpriorconsent.OtherFormsofMonitoring2Polygraphsanddrugtesting,physicalandelectronicsurveillance,third-partybackgroundchecks,andpsychologicaltestinghaveallbeenusedtogainemployeeinformation.Useofelectronicmonitoringandsurveillanceisincreasing.Wheremightthispracticeheadtowardinthefuture?Oneareasuretoprovidenewquestionsonprivacyisgenetictesting.TheGeneticInformationNon-DiscriminationAct(GINA)2008prohibitsdiscriminationbasedongeneticinformation.UnderGINA,yourgeneticinformationisalsoyourfamily’smedicalhistory.OtherFormsofMonitoring3GINAdoesprovideforexceptions.Anemployercancollectgeneticinformationto:ComplywiththeFamilyMedicalLeaveAct(FMLA).Monitorthebiologicaleffectsoftoxinsintheworkplace.Ifcollected,theinformationmayonlybereleasedundercertaincircumstances.EEOCissuedclarifyingguidelinesin2010thatincludea“safeharbor”liabilityexceptionforemployersthatinadvertentlyreceivegeneticinformationinresponsetoalawfulmedicalinquiry.EthicsandBusinessThingsdonotchange;wechange. HenryDavidThoreauBusinessReasonstoLimitMonitoringMonitoringmaycreateasuspiciousandhostileworkplace.Theemployerisneglectingakeystakeholder—theworker.Monitoringmayconstraineffectiveperformancesinceitcan:Causeincreasedstressandnegativelyimpactperformance.Causeinjuriessuchascarpaltunnelsyndrome.Leadtounhappy,disgruntledworkers.Employeesclaimthatmonitoringisaninherentinvasionofprivacythatviolatestheirfundamentalhumanrighttoprivacy.BalancingInterests1Monitoringcanbemademoreethicalorhumane.Hawthorneeffect:Notifyingworkerswhentheyarebeingmonitored.Eveniftheyareunabletoprepareinadvance,theemployeesareabletoensurethattheyareontheirbestbehaviorduringthosecalls.Workersarefoundtobemoreproductivebasedonthepsychologicalstimulusofbeingsingledout.Strivingtowardabalancethatrespectsindividualdignitywhilealsoholdingindividualsaccountablefortheirrolesintheorganization.Amonitoringprogramdevelopedaccordingtothemission,thenimplementedinamannerthatremainsaccountabletotheimpactedemployees,approachesthatbalance.ParametersforaMonitoringPolicyNomonitoringinprivateareas(Example:restrooms).Limitmonitoringtowithintheworkplace.Employeesshouldhaveaccesstoinformationgatheredduringmonitoring.Nosecretmonitoring–advancenoticerequired.Monitoringshouldonlyresultinattainingsomebusinessinterest.Employermayonlycollectjob-relatedinformation.Thereneedstobeadisclosureagreementregardingthemonitoring.Nodiscriminationbyemployersbasedonoff-workactivities.BalancingInterests2PhilosopherWilliamParentsuggestsweasksixquestionstodeterminewhetheractionsarejustifiableorhavethepotentialforaninvasionofprivacyorliberty.Forwhatpurposeistheundocumentedpersonalknowledgesought?Isthispurposealegitimateandimportantone?Istheknowledgesoughtthroughinvasionofprivacyrelevanttoitsjustifyingpurpose?Isinvasionofprivacytheonly,ortheleastoffensive,meansofobtainingtheknowledge?Whatrestrictionsorproceduralrestraintshavebeenplacedontheprivacy-invadingtechniques?Howwillthepersonalknowledgebeprotectedonceithasbeenacquired?RegulationofOff-WorkActs1Regulationofoff-workactivitiesisaninterestingissue,particularlyinat-willenvironments.Evenat-willemployersmustcomplywithavarietyofstatestatutes.Mostbusinessescannotdiscriminateagainstsmokersbutsomecompaniesencourageemployeestoquit.OnestateandsixU.S.citiesbandiscriminationonthebasisofweight.Lawsprotectingagainstdiscriminationbasedonmaritalstatusexistinjustunderhalfthestates.Notnecessarilyprotectedagainstactionbasedonwhotheymarried.Twenty-onestatesandtheDistrictofColumbiaprohibitemploymentdiscriminationonthebasisofsexualorientation.RegulationofOff-WorkActs2Moststatutesprovideforemployerdefenseforrulesthat:Arereasonablyandrationallyrelatedtotheemploymentactivitiesofaparticularemployee.Constitutea"bonafideoccupationalrequirement."Meaningarulethatisreasonablyrelatedtothatparticularposition.Arenecessarytoavoidaconflictofinterestortheappearanceofconflictofinterest.RegulationofOff-WorkActs3Thequestionofmonitoringemployeeonlinecommunicationwhileoffworkisrelevanttotechnologymonitoring.Ariseswithoutmuchlegalguidance.Demandssensitiveethicaldecisionmaking.Isitethicaltoseekoutonlineinformationprohibitedfromajobinterview,suchasreligion?Lawsvaryfromcountrytocountryan