國外心理語言學(xué)課件7

PSY369:PsycholinguisticsLanguageAcquisitionAnnouncementsOn-lineBlackboardquizforchapter4isnowup.Youmaytakeit5times,topscorecountsImayenduppushingExam2backaday.I’llletyouknowsoon.I’llhandbackExam1attheendofclasstodayLanguagedevelopmentsectionincludesinformationfromChapter3,pages72-87Homework#2dueFeb.21stAcquiringlanguageStudentinmypsycholinguisticscourseDr.Cutting,languagesureiscomplicated.Howdoyouexpectustolearnallthisstuff?AcquiringlanguageStudentinmypsycholinguisticscourse2yearoldWhadda’yamean,mommy.Icantalk.Icanunderstandwhatyousay.What’ssohard?AcquiringlanguageStudentinmypsycholinguisticscourse2yearoldHowdowe(humans)doit?Howdowelearntousethiscomplexbehavior?OverviewSomeofthemajorissues

ImitationvsInnatenessBorntowalkBorntotalk?Howmuchexplicitteachingdoweget?Verylittleonsyntax&phonology,someonmeaningCommonalitiesacrossindividuals,languagesandculturesLanguageiscomplexeverywhereSounds,words,syntax,andmoreNoprimitive(simple)languagesLanguagedevelopmentissimilareverywhereSimilarstagesDifferentapproachesBehavioristaccountsImitation(&conditioning)accountse.g.,B.F.Skinner–childrenlearnthroughimitationandreinforcement.Nativist(Innateness)accountse.g.,Chomsky’sLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)Languageworksbyinternalizingtherulesofgrammartoproducesentences.Theydothiswithoutpractice,reinforcement,oradultmodelingUniversalGrammar&ParametersettingDifferentapproachesCognitivehypothesesPiaget–cognitivedevelopmentdriveslanguagedevelopmentVygotsky–languageandcognitionareinitiallyseparate,butaseachdevelopbecometightlyinterconnected,witheachinfluencingeachotherSocialhypothesise.g.,Bruner’sLanguageacquisitionsocializationsystem(LASS)–emphasizedthesocialsettinginacquiringlanguageExposuretolanguageisnotenough,learnersmustexperiencelanguageinsocial/interactivecontextsE.g,child-directedspeech,turntakingsituationsTypicallanguagedevelopment6Months12Months18Months24Months36MonthsSimilarstagesTypicallanguagedevelopment6MonthsRespondstohisnameRespondstohumanvoiceswithoutvisualcuesbyturninghisheadandeyesRespondsappropriatelytofriendlyandangrytonesTypicallanguagedevelopment12MonthsUsesoneormorewordswithmeaning(thismaybeafragmentofaword)Understandssimpleinstructions,especiallyifvocalorphysicalcuesaregivenPracticesinflectionIsawareofthesocialvalueofspeech18MonthsHasvocabularyofapproximately5-20wordsVocabularymadeupchieflyofnounsSomeecholalia(repeatingawordorphraseoverandover)IsabletofollowsimplecommandsTypicallanguagedevelopment24MonthsCannameanumberofobjectscommontohissurroundingsIsabletouseatleasttwoprepositionsCombineswordsintoashortsentence(telegraphic)Vocabularyofapproximately150-300wordsVolumeandpitchofvoicenotyetwell-controlledTypicallanguagedevelopment36MonthsUsepronounsI,you,mecorrectlyIsusingsomepluralsandpasttensesKnowsatleastthreeprepositionsHandlesthreewordsentenceseasilyHasintheneighborhoodof900-1000wordsAbout90%ofwhatchildsaysshouldbeintelligibleVerbsbegintopredominate

TypicallanguagedevelopmentInthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornNormalhumanlanguageusessoundsbetween100and4000HzSoundtravelsthroughskinandfluidstooInthewomb,soundsupto1000HzCan’thearindividualwordsButcanhear:Intonation,durations,rhythm,stressWhatwasthat?You’remumbling.Inthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornDeCasper&Spence(1986)Hadmothersreadstorieseverydaytofetusesduringfinal6weeksofpregnancyAfterbabieswereborntestedtoseeifbabiespreferredfamiliarstoryovernoveloneResults:babiespreferredthefamiliarstoriesNon-NutritiveSuckingmethodInthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornMahleretal.(1988,inFrance)4dayoldbabiesNon-NutritiveSuckingmethodPlayedFrenchorRussianSuckingpatternchangediflanguagewasswitchedSuckingpatterndidn’tchangeiflanguagewasn’tswitchedBabiesknew(somethingabout)thelanguages(mostlikelyprosody)Inthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornDeCasper,etal(1994)FetalheartmonitorInthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornDeCasper,etal(1994)SamestoryDifferentstoryHadmothersreadstorieseverydaytofetusesduring34-38weeksofpregnancyAfter38thweek,twostorieswereplayedtothefetuses(butmomcouldn’thearit)FetalheartmonitorInthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornDeCasper,etal(1994)SamestoryDifferentstoryHadmothersreadstorieseverydaytofetusesduring34-38weeksofpregnancyAfter38thweek,twostorieswereplayedtothefetuses(butmomcouldn’thearit)FetalheartmonitorInthebeginning…PrelinguisticcommunicationandthewombWeexperiencelanguagebeforewe’reevenbornDeCasper,etal(1994)Hadmothersreadstorieseverydaytofetusesduring34-38weeksofpregnancyAfter38thweek,twostorieswereplayedtothefetuses(butmomcouldn’thearit)SamestoryDifferentstoryDecreasedfetalheart-rateBabylearnedsomethingaboutthestorybeforeitwasborn!FetalheartmonitorTheearlydaysAfterbirthPrelinguisticcommunicationPhonologicaldifferencesarekeySlowerHigherinpitchMorevariableinpitchMoreexaggeratedintonationAllmayhelptoorientandmaintainattentionofinfantTypicallydealwiththe“here&now”Mayhelp“bootstrap”laterlearningChild-directedspeech(motherese)TheearlydaysAfterbirthPrelinguisticcommunicationTurntakingbehaviorsFromthemovie-breastfeeding“conversations”Parentsinterpretinfant’svocalizationsashavingmeaning(alsofromthemovie,Snow’swork)Early“conversations”Theearlydays:gesturesPrelinguisticgestures(around8months)Demonstrationthattheinfantistryingtocommunicateinsomewaye.g.,pointingbehaviorsCriteriaWaitingPersistenceDevelopmentofalternativeplansSharpphonemeboundary1...3…5…7%/ba/1000Eimasetal,(1971)Categoricalperceptionininfants(1montholds)Theearlydays:phonologyYounginfantscandistinguishdifferentphonemesTheearlydays:phonologyAnumberofstudiessuggestthatveryyounginfantscanperceivebetweenanumberofphonemicdistinctions(e.g.,Kuhl&Meltzhoff,1997)NotlimitedtotheirlanguagecontextHowever,astheyage/experiencetheircontextlanguagetheabilitytoperceivesomeofthesedistinctionsarelost(~10to12months)CategoricalperceptionininfantsNature/nurturedebate:Arehumans“pre-programmed”todistinguishspeechsounds?1...3…5…7%/ba/1000SharpphonemeboundaryEimasetal,(1971)Categoricalperceptionininfants(1montholds)Theearlydays:phonologyChinchillasdoittoo!KuhlandMiller(1975)Arethey“pre-programmedtoperceivehumanspeech?We’relisteningTheearlydays:speechproductionVocaltrackdifferencesInfantsvocaltractsaresmaller,andinitiallyshapeddifferentlyTheinfant’stonguefillstheentiremouth,reducingtherangeofmovementAsthefacialskeletongrows,therangeformovementincreases(whichprobablycontributestotheincreasedvarietyofsoundsinfantsstarttoproduce)Maybe(inpart)whyproductionlagsbehindcomprehensionInfantAdultSpeechproductionTheprogressionofcooingandbabblingfollowsauniversalpattern.RoleofbothnatureandnurtureNature/Biologyplaysanimportantroleinthe

emergenceofcooing&babbling.Theformofthechild’svocalizationisalsoaffectedbythelinguisticenvironment.Babbling&othervideosPre6weeks–“vegetative”soundsCry,burp,suckingnoisesPost6week–“cooing”andlater“babbling”6-8weeks:cooing4-6months:babbling

Theprogressionofcooingandbabblingfollowsauniversalpattern.Babies,untilaround6monthsold,canproducesounds/phonemesthattheirparentscannotproduceordistinguishClearconsonantsandvowelsareproduced“da”,“gi”Speechproduction6-8weeks:cooing4-6months:babbling

Theprogressionofcooingandbabblingfollowsauniversalpattern.Babies,untilaround6monthsold,canproducesounds/phonemesthattheirparentscannotproduceordistinguish6-7months:Reduplicatedbabbling“dada”,“gigi”SpeechproductionSpeechproduction6-8weeks:cooing4-6months:babbling

Theprogressionofcooingandbabblingfollowsauniversalpattern.Babies,untilaround6monthsold,canproducesounds/phonemesthattheirparentscannotproduceordistinguish6-7months:Reduplicatedbabbling8-9months:CVCclustersmayappear“bod”,“tat”SpeechproductionTheprogressionofcooingandbabblingfollowsauniversalpattern.Babies,untilaround6monthsold,canproducesounds/phonemesthattheirparentscannotproduceordistinguish10or11months:VariegatedbabblingCombining“incomprehensiblewords”“dabgogotah”IntonationpatternsMayreflectphonologicalrulesofspokenlanguagecontextBy12to14monthssomeevidenceoflanguagespecificphonologicalrulesThefirstwordsOfcoursehesaid“arf.”

Whatelsedidyouexpecthisfirstwordtobe?LanguageSpongesAbout3,000newwordsperyear,especiallyintheprimarygradesAsmanyas8newwordsperdayProductiontypicallylagsbehindcomprehensionLearningwords12msfirstwords2yrs200words3yrs 1,000words6yrs15,000wordsLanguageSpongesLotsofindividualdifferencesButthereisalsoaconsistentpatternVocabularygrowthMethodsusedtostudythisObservationaldata(60stopresent)DiarystudiesParentsrecordtheirkidslanguagedevelopmentTapedlanguagesamples(RogerBrown)Smallnumbersofchildren(Eve,Adam,Sarah)WenttohomeeverymonthmadetaperecordingsExtensivestudyneededHardtokidsto“sayallthewordsyouknow”or“sayaquestion”Earlyphonologicalproductionisn’tlikeadultproduction,oftenneedtotakegreatcaredecidingwhatthechildmeantLargedatabaseCHILDESManykids,manylanguages,includingchildrenwithlanguagedifficultiesLanguageSpongesLearningwordsGeneralpatternsandobservationsSoundsMeaningProposedStrategiesFastmappingWholeobjectMutualexclusivityLearningSyntaxLearningMorphologyEarlywordlearningFirstwords(Around10-15months)Emergenceofsystematic,repeatedproductionsofphonologicallyconsistentforms1wordstagetypicallylastsaround10monthsHavelearnedfirst50wordsby15–24monthsTypicallyfocusedonthe“hereandnow”EarlywordlearningDevelopedinsystematicwaysNotsimplyimitation,ratherarecreativeLearnedimportanceofconsistencyofnamesFirstwords(Around10-15months)Emergenceofsystematic,repeatedproductionsofphonologicallyconsistentformsIdiomorphs-personalizedwords“Adultwords”-Typicallycontextbound(relevanttotheimmediateenvironment)Importantpeople,Objectsthatmove,Objectsthatcanbeactedupon,FamiliaractionsNounstypicallyappearbeforeverbsWhatkindsofwords?1-generalnames“dog”2-specificnames“mommy”3-actionwords“bye-bye”

4-modifiers“red”

5-personal/social“yes,no,please”6-functional“what”EarlyspeechproductionTransitiontospeechThisisyourfis?Yourfis?Oh,yourfish.No.…myfis.No.Myfis!Yes,myfis.EarlyspeechproductionThisisyourfis?TransitiontospeechNo,…myfis.Yourfis.No,myfis.Oh,yourfish.Yes,myfis.Can’thearthedifference?RejectsadultsayingfisCan’tproducethecorrectsounds?Sometimes,butevidencesuggestsnotalwaysthecaseMoregeneralprocessofsimplification“freesup”resourcesforconcentratingonotheraspectsoflanguagelearningEarlyspeechproductionCommonPhonologicalprocessesReductionDeletesoundsfromwords(“da”fordog)CoalescenceCombinedifferentsyllablesintoonesyllable(“paf”forpacifier)AssimilationChangeonesoundintoasimilarsoundwithintheword(“fweet”forsweet)ReduplicationOnesyllablefromamulti-syllabicwordisrepeated(“baba”forbottle)Transitiontospeechindividualdiffs,butsomecommonprocessesExtensionsofmeaningExtensionFindingtheappropriatelimitsofthemeaningofwordsUnderextensionApplyingawordtoonarrowlyOverextensionApplyingawordtoobroadlyApplyingthewordstoreferentsExtensionsofmeaning“tee”Extensionsofmeaning“tee”1:9,11Extensionsofmeaning“tee”1:9,111:10,18Extensionsofmeaning“tee”“googie”1:9,111:10,181:11,1Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,24Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”1:11,27“pushi”Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”1:11,27“pushi”2:0,10“moo-ka”“hosh”Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”1:11,27“pushi”2:0,10“moo-ka”“hosh”2:0,20“biggiegoogie”Extensionsofmeaning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”1:11,27“pushi”2:0,10“moo-ka”“hosh”2:0,20“biggiegoogie”

One-word-per-referentheuristicIfanewwordcomesinforareferentthatisalreadynamed,replaceitExceptiontothatwas“horse,”butitonlylastedadayhereStrategiesforlearning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”1:11,27“pushi”2:0,10“moo-ka”“hosh”2:0,20“biggiegoogie”ExpansionandcontractioncanoccuratthesametimeStrategiesforlearning1:9,111:10,18“tee”1:11,11:11,2“googie”1:11,241:11,25“tee/hosh”1:11,26“hosh”1:11,27“pushi”2:0,10“moo-ka”“hosh”2:0,20“biggiegoogie”Childtriesdifferentthings,ifaworddoesn’tworkthentrysomethingelse

e.g.,hoshdidn’tforforthelargedog,switchedtobiggiedoggie

Indeterminacy:FrogFrogFrog?Green?Ugly?Jumping?Quine’sgavagaiproblemTheproblemofreference:awordmayrefertoanumberofreferents(realworldobjects)asingleobjectoreventhasmanyobjects,partsandfeaturesthatcanbereferredtoFrogFrog?Green?Ugly?Jumping?LearningwordmeaningsFastmapping(Carey&Bartlett,1978)UsingthecontexttoguessthemeaningofawordLearningwordsPleasegivemethechromiumtray.Nottheblueone,thechromiumone.AllgottheolivetraySeveralweekslaterstillhadsomeofthemeaningConstraintsonWordLearningPerhapschildrenarebiasedtoentertaincertainhypothesesaboutwordmeaningsoverothersThesefirstguessessavethemfromlogicalambiguityGetthemstartedoutontherighttrackObject-scope(wholeobject)constraintTaxonomicconstraintMutualexclusivityconstraintLearningwordsCognitiveConstraints(Markman,1989)Object-scope(wholeobject)constraintWordsrefertowholeobjectsratherthantopartsofobjectsStrategiesforlearningDog‘Showmeanotherlux’‘Hereisalux’TaxonomicconstraintWordsrefertocategoriesofsimilarobjectsTaxonomiesratherthanthematicallyrelatedobejctsStrategiesforlearningButin‘no-word’conditions,theywouldbeshownthefirstpictureSeethis?Canyoufindanotherone?StrategiesforlearningStrategiesforlearningtheychoosethecorkscrewbecauseitisalesswellknownobjectforwhichtheydon’thavealabelyet.‘Showmeadax’:Mutualexclusivityconstraint

(MarkamandWatchel1988)Eachobjecthasonelabel&differentwordsrefertoseparate,non-overlappingcategoriesofobjectsAnobjectcanhaveonlyonelabelStrategiesforlearningProblemwithconstraintsMostoftheconstraintsproposedapplyonlytoobjectnames.Whataboutverbs?(Nelson1988)TherehavebeencaseswherechildrenhavebeenobservedviolatingtheseconstraintsUsingforexampletheword‘car’onlytoreferto‘carsmovingonthestreetfromacertainlocation’(Bloom1973)Themutualexclusivityconstraintwouldpreventchildrenfromlearningsubordinateandsuperordinateinformation(animal<dog<poodle)Thelanguageexplosionisnotjusttheresultofsimplesemanticdevelopment;thechildisnotjustaddingmorewordstohis/hervocabulary.Childismasteringbasicsyntacticandmorphologicalprocesses.LanguageexplosioncontinuesSyntaxMeanlengthofutterance(MLU)inmorphemesTake100utterancesandcountthenumberofmorphemesperutteranceLanguageexplosioncontinuesDaddycoming.Hi,car.Daddycarcomed.Twocaroutside.Itgettingdark.Allgoneoutside.Bye-byeoutside.#morphemes:3,2,4,3,4,2,2‘-ing’and‘-ed’separatemorphemes‘a(chǎn)llgone’treatedasasinglewordMLU=morphemes/utterances=20/7=2.86SyntaxMeanlengthofutterance(MLU)inmorphemesLanguageexplosioncontinuesProto-syntax(??)Holophrases(around1-1.5years)Single-wordutterancesmaybeusedtoexpressmorethanthemeaningusuallyattributedtothatsinglewordbyadultsLanguageexplosioncontinues“dog”

mightrefertothedogisdrinkingwaterTypicallyidiosyncratic,butsomeconventional/common(e.g.,indicatetheexistenceofanobject,requestrecurrenceofobjectorevent)OftencombinedwithintonationorgestureControversialclaim:Mayreflectadevelopingsenseofsyntax,butnotyetknowinghowtouseit(e.g.,seeBloom,1973)SyntaxRogerBrown(1973)proposed5stagesStage1:Telegraphicspeech(MLU~1.75;around24months)ChildrenbegintocombinewordsintoutterancesLimitedtoasmallsetofsemanticrelations(e.g.,nomination,recurrence,attribution,possession[seetable10.3forexamples])Debate:learningsemanticrelationsorsyntactic(positionrules)“babysleep”agent+actionorNounVerbLanguageexplosioncontinuesChildrenintelegraphicspeechstagearesaidtoleaveoutthe‘littlewords’andinflections:e.g.MummyshoeNOTMummy’sshoeTwocatNOTtwocatsMorethantwowordsStages2through5Stage2(MLU~2.25)

begintomodulatemeaningusingwordorder(syntax)Modulationsfornumber,time,aspectGradualacquisitionofgrammaticalmorphemes(“-ing”,“-s”Laterstagesreflectgenerallymorecomplexuseofsyntax(e.g.,questions,negatives)LanguageexplosioncontinuesSyntaxRogerBrown(1973)proposed5stagesInnatenessaccountsSemanticbootstrappingLearnedaccountsAcquiredfromthelinguisticinputfromtheenvironmentItisinthestimulusHowdokidslearnthesyntax?InnatenessaccountPinker(1984,1989)SemanticbootstrappingHowdokidslearnthesyntax?ChildhasinnateknowledgeofsyntacticcategoriesandlinkingrulesChildlearnsthemeaningsofsomecontentwordsChildconstructssomesemanticrepresentationsofsimplesentencesChildmakesguessesaboutsyntacticstructurebasedonsurfaceformandsemanticmeaning“Itisinthestimulus”accounts(e.g.Bates,1979)Speechtochildrenisnotimpoverished(Snow,1977)Childrenlearngrammarbymappingsemanticroles(agent,action,patient)ontogrammaticalcategories(subject,verb,object)Inalllanguagestherearemultiplepotentialcuesindicatingsemantic/syntacticrelations(e.g.,wordorder,casemarking)SimilarwordsoccurinsimilarlinguisticcontextsAcousticinformation(e.g.,prosody)mayprovidesyntacticcuesChildrendonotneedinnateknowledgetolearngrammarHowdokidslearnthesyntax?MorphologyTypicallythingslikeinflectionsandprepositionsstartaroundMLUof2.5(usuallyin2yrolds)RemembertheWugexperiment(Berko-Gleason,1958)AcquiringMorphologyMorphologyAcquiringMorphologyThispersonknowshowtorick.Shedidthesamethingyesterday.Yesterdayshe________.Typicallychildrensaythatshe“ricked.”AcquiringMorphologyAge(yrs)MorphemeExample(s)2PresentprogressiveIdriving2ArticlesAdog,thedoctor2PluralBalls2UncontractibleCopulaHeisasleep,am,are3ThirdpersonsingularHewantsanapple3FullprogressiveBe+ing,Iamsinging3RegularpasttenseShewalkedMorphology:orderofacquisitionAcquiringMorphologyChildrensometimesmakemistakes.Myteacherholdedthebabyrabbits.YesSheholdedthebabyrabbits.Didyousayyourteacherheldthebabyrabbit?Whatdidyousayshedid?No,sheholdedthemloosely.Didyousayheldthemtightly?AcquiringMorphologyThisisungrammaticalintheadultlanguageShowsthatchildrenarenotsimplyimitatingInthiscase,whattheyproducesomethingthatisnotintheirinput.Childrensometimesmakemistakes.Myteacherholdedthebabyrabbits.Whydotheymakeerrorslikethese?Inthecaseathand,wehavewhatiscalledoverregularizationTheverbholdhasanirregularpasttenseform,heldBecausethisformisused,theregularpasttense--thatwith-ed--isnotfound(*hold-ed)AcquiringMorphologyChildrensometimesmakemistakes.Myteacherholdedthebabyrabbits.AcquiringMorphologyExamples:HortonhearedaWhoIfindedRenéeThealligatorgoedkerplunkThecaseofverbpasttense:Regularverbformsrequirenostoredknowledgeofthepasttenseform(wugtest)Pasttenseisaccomplishedbyapplyingapasttenserule(e.g.,add-ed)totheverbstemWithirregularverbssomethingmustbememorizedStagesintheacquisitionofirregularinflectionsAcquiringMorphologyWithregularverbs,thedefaultform-edisusedWithirregulars,listsassociatingtheverbwithaparticularformofthepasttensehavetobememorized:Pasttenseis-twhenattachedtoleave,keep,etc.Is->wasDig->dugHas->hadThecaseofverbpasttense:AcquiringMorphologyStagesintheacquisitionofirregularinflectionstimeOnthefaceofit,learningthesemorphologicalquirksfollowsapeculiarpattern:Early:correctirregularformsareusedMiddle:incorrectregularformsareusedLate:correctformsareusedagainMemory&RulesWhydowefindthistypeofpattern?MemoryandrulesTheuseofoverregularizedformsstartsataroundthesamethatthatthechildisbeginningtoapplythedefault-edrulesuccessfullyEarly:Allforms--whetherregularorirregular--arememorizedMiddle:Theregularruleislearned,andinsomecasesoverappliedLate:Irregularsareusedbasedonmemory,regularsusetherule(theideaisthatifthewordcanprovideitsownpasttensefrommemory,thenthepasttenseruleisblocked)Memory&RulesWhydowefindthistypeofpattern?MemoryandrulesOtheraccountsMaratsos(2000)–frequencyexplanationItispossibletopredictwhichverbswillbesubjecttooverregularizationThemoreoftenanirregularformoccursintheinput,thelesslikelythechildistouseitasanoverregularizationThisisevidencethatsomepartofoverregularizationoccursbecauseofmemoryfailuresSomethingaboutirregularsisunpredictable,hencehastobememorizedWhatkindof“teaching”dokidsget?Iflanguageislearned(andnotinnate),howdokidsdoit?Whatkindoffeedbackdotheyget?Claim:Positiveevidenceisnotsufficientforlearningalanguage.Whatkindof“teaching”dokidsget?Arethekidsevenawareofmistakes?Thechildrenareapparentlyawareofthefactthattheirformsarestrange:Parent:Where’sMommy?Child:MommygoedtothestoreParent:Mommygoedtothestore?Child:NO!Daddy,Isayitthatway,notyouPositiveandnegativeevidencePositiveevidence:KidsheargrammaticalsentencesNegativeevidence:informationthatagivensentenceisungrammatical

Kidsarenottoldwhichsentencesareungrammatical

(nonegative

evidence)Let’sconsidernonegativeevidencefurther…Whatkindoffeedbackisavailableforlearning?Whatkindof“teaching”dokidsget?HowmuchPositiveEvidenceisthere?Estimated5000–7000utterancesadayBetween?and1/3arequestionsOver20%arenot“full”adultsentences(typicallyNounorprepositionalphrases)Onlyabout15%havetypicalEnglishSVOformRoughly45%ofallmaternalutterancesbeganwithoneof17words(e.g.,“what”,“that”,“it”,“you”)Cameron-Faulkner,etal(2003)Sowhatkidsdohearmaybesomewhatlimited.NegativeevidenceNegativeevidencecouldcomeinvariousconceivableforms.“ThesentenceBillacookieateisnotasentenceinEnglish,Timmy.NosentencewithSOVwordorderis.”UponhearingBillacookieate,anadultmightNotunderstandLookpainedRephrasetheungrammaticalsentencegrammaticallyKidsresistinstruction…McNeill(1966)Child:Nobodydon’tlikeme.Adult:No,say‘nobodylikesme.’Child:Nobodydon’tlikeme.

[repeatseighttimes]

Adult:No,nowlistencarefully;say‘nobodylikesme.’Child:Oh!Nobodydon’tlikesme.Kidsresistinstruction…Cazden(1972)(observationattributedtoJeanBerkoGleason)Child:Myteacherholdedthebabyrabbitsandwepattedthem.Adult:Didyousayyourteacherheldthebabyrabbits?Child:Yes.Adult:Whatdidyousayshedid?Child:Sheholdedthebabyrabbitsandwepattedthem.Adult:Didyousaysheheldthemtightly?Child:No,sheholdedthemloosely.Sotheredoesn’tseemtobealotofexplicitnegativeevidence,andwhatthereisthekidsoftenresist

Negativeevidenceviafeedback?Dokidsget“implicit”negativeevidence?Doadultsunderstandgrammaticalsentencesandnotunderstandungrammaticalones?Doadultsrespondpositivelytogrammaticalsentencesandnegativelytoungrammaticalones?Brown&Hanlon(1970):Casestudyof“Adam”-lookedatthingsthatweresaidtohimbyadults,andwhathesaidtothemAdultsunderstood42%