《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué) International Marketing 》(雙語)課程教案

外國(guó)語學(xué)院教案

2010~~2011學(xué)年第1學(xué)期

系部外國(guó)語學(xué)院課程組《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué)》（雙語）課程名稱《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué)》（雙語）授課對(duì)象英語專業(yè)本科生授課教師職稱職務(wù)教材名稱《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué)》（雙語）

《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué)》（雙語）課程教案授課題目（教學(xué)章節(jié)或主題）：Chapter1IntroductiontoGlobalMarketing授課類型

理論+討論+案例分析+模擬市場(chǎng)調(diào)查+實(shí)踐環(huán)節(jié)教學(xué)授課時(shí)間每周一第1-2節(jié)教學(xué)目標(biāo)或要求：LearningabouttheconceptofMarketingandGlobalMarketingUnderstandingthereasonsforGlobalMarketingUnderstandingtheconceptsofglobalization，globalindustryandcompetitiveadvantage教學(xué)內(nèi)容（包括基本內(nèi)容、重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)）：ThedefinitionofInternational/GlobalMarketingThefourmanagementorientationsThedrivingforcesforglobalintegrationandglobalmarketingTherestrainingforcesforglobalmarketingThefastestglobalizingnationshaveenjoyedratesofeconomicgrowthupto50percenthigherthanthosethathaveintegratedintotheworldeconomymoreslowly.Linkedtothisgrowth,thesesamecountrieshavealsoachievedrelativelymoregainsinpoliticalfreedom,andgreaterincreasesinlifeexpectancy,literacy,rates,andtheiroverallstandardofliving.

Firmshavebenefitedsubstantiallyfromglobalmarketingexpansion.Withwidermarketreachandmanymorecustomers,firmsintheinternationalmarketproducemoreanddosomoreefficientlythandotheirdomestic-onlycounterparts.Asaresult,internationalfirmssimultaneouslyachievelowercostsandhigherprofitsbothathomeandabroad.Marketdiversificationandthestabilityarisingfromfirm’slackofdependenceonanyparticularmarketareotherpositiveeffects.Firmsalsolearnfromtheircompetitors,andcanrecruitanddevelopthebesttalentfromallovertheworld.Thecumulativeeffectofallthesedimensionsissignificant.Researchhasshownthatfirmsofallsizesandinallindustriesengagedininternationalmarketingoutperformedtheirstrictlydomesticcounterparts.Theygrownmorethantwiceasfastinsalesandearnsignificantlyhigherreturnsonequityandassets.”

1.MarketingMarketingisnotonlytoproduce,advertiseandsellproductstocustomersinthemarket,buttothinkofwaystocreatecustomervalueinthemosteffectiveway,subjecttoethicalandotherconstraintsthatonemayhave,afterresearchingcustomers’needsandwants.Itismanagingprofitablecustomerrelationships.Tomakeitsimple,marketingistoattractnewcustomersbypromisingsuperiorvalueandtokeepandgrowcurrentcustomersbydeliveringsatisfaction.Marketingisasocialandmanagerialprocessbywhichindividualsandgroupsobtainwhattheyneedandwantthroughcreatingandexchangingvalueswithothers.Inabusinesssetting,marketinginvolvesbuildingandmanagingprofitableexchangerelationshipswithcustomers(PhilipKotler,Marketing:Anintroduction).The2006and2007definitionsofferedbytheAmericanMarketingAssociationarerelativelysimilar,withthe2007appearingabitmoreconcise.Notethatthedefinitionsmakeseveralpoints:Amainobjectiveofmarketingistocreatecustomervalue.Marketingusuallyinvolvesanexchangebetweenbuyersandsellersorbetweenotherparties.Marketinghasanimpactonthefirm,itssuppliers,itscustomers,andothersaffectedbythefirm’schoices.Marketingfrequentlyinvolvesenduringrelationshipsbetweenbuyers,sellers,andotherparties.Processesinvolvedinclude“creating,communicating,delivering,andexchangingofferings.”1.1Deliveringcustomervalue.Thecentralideabehindmarketingistheideathatafirmorotherentitywillcreatesomethingofvaluetooneormorecustomerswho,inturn,arewillingtopayenough(orcontributeotherformsofvalue)tomaketheventureworthwhileconsideringopportunitycosts.Itshouldbenotedthatvaluemustbeexaminedfromthepointofviewofthecustomer.Somecustomersegmentsvaluecertainproductattributesmorethanothers.Averyexpensiveproduct—relativetoothersinthecategory—may,infact,representgreatvaluetoaparticularcustomersegmentbecausethebenefitsreceivedareseenasevengreaterthanthesacrificemade(usuallyintermsofmoney).Somesegmentshaveveryuniqueandspecificdesires,andmayvaluewhat—tosomeindividuals—mayseema“l(fā)owerquality”item—veryhighly.1.2Someformsofcustomervalue.Themarketingprocessinvolveswaysthatvaluecanbecreatedforthecustomer.Formutilityinvolvestheideathattheproductismadeavailabletotheconsumerinsomeformthatismoreusefulthananycommoditiesthatareusedtocreateit.Acustomerbuysachair,forexample,ratherthanthewoodandothercomponentsusedtocreatethechair.Thus,thecustomerbenefitsfromthespecializationthatallowsthemanufacturertomoreefficientlycreateachairthanthecustomercoulddohimselforherself.Placeutilityreferstotheideathataproductmadeavailabletothecustomeratapreferredlocationisworthmorethanoneattheplaceofmanufacture.Itismuchmoreconvenientforthecustomertobeabletobuyfooditemsinasupermarketinhisorherneighborhoodthanitistopickupthesefromthefarmer.Timeutilityinvolvestheideaofhavingtheproductmadeavailablewhenneededbythecustomer.ThecustomermaybuyaturkeyafewdaysbeforeThanksgivingwithouthavingtoplantohaveitavailable.Intermediariestakecareofthelogisticstohavetheturkeys—whichareeasilyperishableandbulkytostoreinafreezer—availablewhencustomersdemandthem.Possessionutilityinvolvestheideathattheconsumercangotoonestoreandobtainalargeassortmentofgoodsfromdifferentmanufacturersduringoneshoppingoccasion.Supermarketscombinefoodandotherhouseholditemsfromanumberofdifferentsuppliersinoneplace.Certain“superstores”suchastheEuropeanhypermarketsandtheWal-Mart“supercenters”combineevenmoreitemsintoonesetting.ThemarketingprocessStep1Understandthemarketplaceandcustomerneedsandwants.Step2Designacustomer-drivenmarketingstrategy.Step3Constructamarketingprogramthatdeliverssuperiorvalue.Step4Buildprofitablerelationshipsandcreatecustomerdelight.Step5Capturevaluefromcustomerstocreateprofitsandcustomerquality.Inthefirstfoursteps,companiesworktounderstandthemarketplaceandcustomers,tocreatecustomervalue,andbuildstrongcustomerrelationships.Inthefinalstep,companiesreapthefruitofcreatingsuperiorcustomervalue.1.4Themarketingvs.thesellingconcept.Twoapproachestomarketingexist.Thetraditionalsellingconceptemphasizessellingexistingproducts.Thephilosophyhereisthatifaproductisnotselling,moreaggressivemeasuresmustbetakentosellit—e.g.,cuttingprice,advertisingmore,orhiringmoreaggressive(andobnoxious)sales-people.SmithCorona,amanufactureroftypewriters,wastooslowtorealizethatconsumerswantedtheabilitytoprocessdocumentsandnottypewritersperse.Themarketingconcept,incontrast,focusesongivingconsumerswhattheyseek,regardlessofwhetherthisentailscomingupwithentirelynewproducts.2.InternationalmarketingAlookattheappropriatefigures,(forexampleTheWorldDevelopmentReportbytheWorldBank)willindicatethattheworldisbecomingincreasinglyinterdependentforitseconomicprogress.In1954,intheUSA,forinstance,importswereonlyonepercentofGNP,butin1984theyhadrisento10%.Infoodcrops,whiledevelopingcountriestradeincoffee,cocoa,cottonandsugaractuallydeclinedinvalueduringthe1980s,developingcountriesasagroupexperiencedannualexportgrowthratesof4to11%incategorieslikeprocessedfruitandvegetables,freshprocessedfishproducts,feedstuffsandoilseeds.Highvaluefoodproductexportsin1990totalledapproximately$144billion,thesameascrudepetroleum,representing5%ofworldcommoditytrade.In1990,morethantwentyLessDevelopedCountries(LDCs)hadexportsofhighvaluefoodsexceeding$500millionincludingcountrieslikeBrazil,China,Thailand,IndiaandSenegal.Internationalmarketing(IM)orglobalmarketingreferstomarketingcarriedoutbycompaniesoverseasoracrossnationalborderlines.Thisstrategyusesanextensionofthetechniquesusedinthehomecountryofafirm.Itreferstothefirm-levelmarketingpracticesacrosstheborderincludingmarketidentificationandtargeting,entrymodeselection,marketingmix,andstrategicdecisionstocompeteininternationalmarkets.AccordingtotheAmericanMarketingAssociation(AMA)"internationalmarketingisthemultinationalprocessofplanningandexecutingtheconception,pricing,promotionanddistributionofideas,goods,andservicestocreateexchangesthatsatisfyindividualandorganizationalobjectives."Incontrasttothedefinitionofmarketingonlythewordmultinationalhasbeenadded.Insimplewordsinternationalmarketingistheapplicationofmarketingprinciplestoacrossnationalboundaries.However,thereisacrossoverbetweenwhatiscommonlyexpressedasinternationalmarketingandglobalmarketing,whichisasimilarterm.Theintersectionistheresultoftheprocessofinternationalization.ManyAmericanandEuropeanauthorsseeinternationalmarketingasasimpleextensionofexporting,wherebythemarketingmix4P'sissimplyadaptedinsomewaytotakeintoaccountdifferencesinconsumersandsegments.Itthenfollowsthatglobalmarketingtakesamorestandardisedapproachtoworldmarketsandfocusesuponsameness,inotherwordsthesimilaritiesinconsumersandsegments.Internationalmarketingisoftennotassimpleasmarketingyourproducttomorethanonenation.Companiesmustconsiderlanguagebarriers,ideals,andcustomsinthemarkettheyareapproaching.Tailoringyourmarketingstrategiestoattractthespecificgroupofpeopleyouareattemptingtoselltoishighlyimportantandcanservethenumberonecauseoffailureorsuccess.2.1Reasonsforinternationalmarketing Tradeisincreasinglyglobalinscopetoday.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.Onesignificantreasonistechnological—becauseofimprovedtransportationandcommunicationopportunitiestoday,tradeisnowmorepractical.Thus,consumersandbusinessesnowhaveaccesstotheverybestproductsfrommanydifferentcountries.Increasinglyrapidtechnologylifecyclesalsoincreasesthecompetitionamongcountriesastowhocanproducethenewestintechnology.Inparttoaccommodatetheserealities,countriesinthelastseveraldecadeshavetakenincreasingstepstopromoteglobaltradethroughagreementssuchastheGeneralTreatyonTradeandTariffs,andtradeorganizationssuchastheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA),andtheEuropeanUnion(EU).2.2ThedifferencebetweeninternationalmarketingandglobalmarketingAswithotherelementsofmarketing,thereisnosingledefinitionofinternationalmarketing.Furthermoresomeauthorsdefineinternationalmarketingandglobalmarketingdifferently.Itcanbedistinguishedbetweendifferentlevelsofinternationalmarketing:"Atitssimplestlevel,internationalmarketinginvolvesthefirminmakingoneormoremarketingmixdecisionsacrossnationalboundaries.Atitsmostcomplexlevel,itinvolvesthefirminestablishingmanufacturingfacilitiesoverseasandcoordinatingmarketingstrategiesacrosstheglobe.""Global/transnationalmarketingfocusesuponleveragingacompany'sassets,experienceandproductsgloballyanduponadaptingtowhatistrulyuniqueanddifferentineachcountry.""Globalmarketingreferstomarketingactivitiescoordinatedandintegratedacrossmultiplecountrymarkets."Anotherdefinitionseesinternationalmarketingastheinternationalinvolvementofbusinessactivities:"Internationalmarketingistheperformanceofbusinessactivitiesthatdirecttheflowofacompany'sgoodsandservicestoconsumersorusersinmorethanonenationforaprofit."Itcanbealsodefinedas"theapplicationofmarketingorientationandmarketingcapabilitiestointernationalbusiness.""Theinternationalmarketgoesbeyondtheexportmarketerandbecomesmoreinvolvedinthemarketingenvironmentinthecountriesinwhichitisdoingbusiness."Internationalmarketinginvolvesrecognizingthatpeopleallovertheworldhavedifferentneeds.CompanieslikeGillette,Coca-Cola,BIC,andCadburySchweppeshavebrandsthatarerecognisedacrosstheglobe.Whilemanyoftheproductsthatthesebusinessessellaretargetedataglobalaudienceusingaconsistentmarketingmix,itisalsonecessarytounderstandregionaldifferences,hencetheimportanceofinternationalmarketing.Organisationsmustacceptthatdifferencesinvalues,customs,languagesandcurrencieswillmeanthatsomeproductswillonlysuitcertaincountriesandthataswellastherebeingglobalmarketse.g.forBICandGilletterazors,andforCoca-Coladrinks,thereareimportantregionaldifferences-forexampleadvertisinginChinaandIndianeedtofocusonlocallanguages.Justasthemarketingenvironmenthastobeassessedathome,theoverseaspotentialofmarketshastobecarefullyscrutinised.Findingrelevantinformationtakeslongerbecauseoftheunfamiliarityofsomelocations.Thepotentialmarketsize,degreeandtypeofcompetition,price,promotionaldifferences,productdifferencesaswellasbarrierstotradehavetobeanalysedalongsidethecost-effectivenessofvarioustypesoftransport.Theorganisationthenhastoassessthescaleoftheinvestmentandconsiderbothshort-andlong-termtargetsforanadequatereturn.2.3ThedifferencebetweendomesticmarketingandinternationalmarketingTherearevariousdifferencesbetweendomesticmarketingandinternationalmarketing.Duetoalanguagebarrieritismoredifficulttoobtainandinterpretresearchdataininternationalmarketing.Promotionalmessagesneedstoconsidernumerousculturaldifferencesbetweendifferentcountries.Thisincludesthedifferencesinlanguages,expressions,habits,gestures,ideologiesandmore.Forexample,intheUnitedStatestheroundOsignmadewiththumbandfirstfingermeans"okay"whileinMediterraneancountriesthesamegesturemeans"zero"or"theworst".InTunisiaitisunderstoodas"I'llkillyou"meanwhileforaJapanconsumeritimplies"money".Evenamongthe74English-speakingnationsawordwiththesamemeaningcandiffergreatlyfromtheEnglishwhichisspokenintheUnitedStates.3.Thefourmanagementorientations3.1Ethnocentric:HomecountryisSuperior,seesSimilaritiesinforeignCountries.3.2Polycentric:Eachhostcountryisunique,seesdifferencesinforeigncountries.3.3Regiocentric:Seessimilaritiesanddifferencesinaworldregion;Itisethnocentricorpolycentricinitsviewoftherestoftheworld3.4Geocentric:Worldview,seessimilaritiesanddifferencesinhomeandhostcountries教學(xué)手段與方法：

1．教學(xué)手段：利用多媒體課件+互聯(lián)網(wǎng)信息+黑板板書2．教學(xué)方法：理論講解+課堂討論+課堂演練+課后作業(yè)

思考題、討論題、作業(yè)：參考資料（含參考書、文獻(xiàn)等）：1．《市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué)課程精華集》Dr.NicholasSamuel/黎平海;暨南大學(xué)，20022．《PrinciplesofGlobalMarketing》WarrenJ.Keegan,MarkC.Green;PrenticeHallPublishingCorp./中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社，19983．《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷》金潤(rùn)圭，高等教育出版社，20014．《哈佛市場(chǎng)》向洪，符曉蓉，賈其友；青島出版社，2005《國(guó)際市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷學(xué)》（雙語）課程教案授課題目（教學(xué)章節(jié)或主題）：Chapter2TheGlobalEconomicEnvironment授課類型

理論+討論+案例分析+模擬市場(chǎng)調(diào)查+實(shí)踐環(huán)節(jié)教學(xué)授課時(shí)間每周一第1-2節(jié)教學(xué)目標(biāo)或要求：LearningabouttheconceptofMarketingandGlobalMarketingUnderstandingthereasonsforGlobalMarketingUnderstandingtheconceptsofglobalization，globalindustryandcompetitiveadvantage教學(xué)內(nèi)容（包括基本內(nèi)容、重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)）：THEGLOBALECONOMICENVIRONMENT1.1THEWORLDECONOMY---ANOVERVIEWDuringthepasttwodecades,theworldeconomicenvironmenthasbecomeincreasinglydynamic;changehasbeendramaticandfarreaching.Toachievesuccess,executivesandmarketersmusttakeintoaccountthefollowingnewrealities.Capitalmovementshavereplacedtradeasthedrivingforceoftheworldeconomy.Productionhasbecome“uncoupled”fromemployment.Theworldeconomydominatesthescene;individualcountryeconomiesplayasubordinaterole.The75-yearstrugglebetweencapitalismandsocialismislargelyover.Thegrowthofe-commercediminishestheimportanceofnationalbarriersandforcescompaniestore-evaluatetheirbusinessmodels.Thefirstchangeistheincreasedvolumeofcapitalmovements.Thedollarvalueofworldtradeinmerchandiseisrunningatroughly$9.2trillionperyear.However,theLondonforeignexchangemarketturnsover$450billioneachworkingday;overall,foreignexchagetransactionsarerunningatapproximately$1.5trillionperdayworldwide---farsurpassingthedollarvolumeofworldtradeingoodsandservices.Thesecondchangeconcernstherelationshipbetweenproductivityandemployment.Althoughemploymentinmanufacturingremainssteadyorhasdeclined,productivitycontinuestogrow.Thethirdmajorchangeistheemergenceoftheworldeconomyasthedominanteconomicunit.Companyexecutivesandnationalleaderswhorecognizethishavethegreatestchanceofsuccess.Forexample,therealsecretoftheeconomicsuccessofGermanyandJapanisthefactthatbusinessleadersandpolicymakersfocusonworldmarketsandtheirrespectivecountries’competitivepositionsintheworldeconomy.Thischangehasbroughttwoquestionstothefore:Howdoestheglobaleconomywork,andwhoisincharge?Unfortunately,theanswerstothesequestionsarenotclearcut.ThefourthchangeistheendoftheColdWar.Theoverwhelminglysuperiorperformanceoftheworld’smarketeconomieshasgivenleadersinmanycountrieslittlechoicebuttorenouncetheirideology.Akeypolicychangeinsuchcountrieshasbeentheabandonmentoffutileattemptstomanagenationaleconomieswithasinglecentralplan.Thispolicychangefrequentlygoeshandinhandwithgovernmentaleffortstofosterincreasedpublicparticipationinmattersofstatebyintroducingdemocraticreforms.Finally,thepersonalcomputerrevolutionandtheadventoftheInternetearhaveinsomewaysdiminishedtheimportanceofnationalboundaries.Two-thirdsofAmericanhouseholdshavePCs;worldwide,nearly600millionpersonalcomputersareinstalledinhomesandbusinesses.Intheso-calledInformationage,barriersoftimeandplacehavebeensubvertedbyatransnationalcyberworldthatfunctions“24/7.”AppleComputer,Google,andeBayarejustafewofthecompaniesthatarepushingtheenvelopeinthisbravenewworld.ECONOMICSYSTEMSAneconomicsystemiscomprisedofthevariousprocessesoforganizingandmotivatinglabor,producing,distributing,andcirculatingofthefruitsofhumanlabor,includingproductsandservices,consumergoods,machines,tools,andothertechnologyusedasinputstofutureproduction,andtheinfrastructurewithinandthroughwhichproduction,distribution,andcirculationoccurs.

Theseprocessesareoverdeterminedbythepolitical,cultural,andenvironmentalconditionswithinwhichtheycometoexist.

Incomparativeeconomicsystems,theseeconomicsystemsareusuallydefinedwithindeterminatepoliticalboundaries.

Thus,onewouldspeakofaChineseeconomicsystem,althoughChinamay,infact,beacomplexconglomerationandinteractionofeconomicsystems.Nevertheless,boundingeconomicsystemsinthiswayprovidesawayofdiscussinghowsuchsystemsaremadepossibleandchangedbythespecificeffectsofpolitico-institutional,cultural,andenvironmentaldifferences.

Thus,onemightdiscusshowthecapitalisteconomicsystemof1999Germanyisdifferentfromthecapitalisteconomicsystemof1999Britain,forexample.Therearefourmaintypesofeconomicsystems:marketcapitalism,centrallyplannedsocialism,centrallyplannedcapitalism,andmarketsocialism(seeTable2-1).Thisclassificationisbasedonthedominantmethodofresourceallocation(marketversuscommand)andthedominantformofresourceownership(privateversusstate).ResourceAllocationResourceOwnershipMarketCommandPrivateMarketCapitalismCentrallyPlannedCapitalismStateMarketSocialismCentrallyPlannedSocialismTable2-1EconomicSystemsMarketCapitalismMarketcapitalismisaneconomicsysteminwhichindividualsandfirmsallocateresourcesandproductionresourcesareprivatelyowned.Simplyput,consumersdecidewhatgoodstheydesireandfirmsdeterminewhatandhowmuchtoproduce;theroleofthestateinmarketcapitalismistopromotecompetitionamongfirmsandensureconsumerprotection.Today,marketcapitalismiswidelypracticedaroundtheworld,mostnotablyinNorthAmericaandWesternEurope.Itwouldbeagrossoversimplification,however,toassumethatallmarket-orientedeconomiesfunctioninanidenticalmanner.EconomistPaulKrugmanhasremarkedthattheUnitedStatesisdistinguishedbyitscompetitive,“wildfree-for-all”anddecentralizedinitiative.Bycontrast,outsiderssometimesrefertoJapanas“JapanInc.”.Thelabelcanbeinterpretedindifferentways,butitbasicallyreferstoatightlyrun,highlyregulatedeconomicsystemthatisalsomarketoriented.CentrallyPlannedSocialismAttheoppositeendofthespectrumfrommarket,capitalismiscentrallyplannedsocialism.Inthistypeofeconomicsystem,thestatehasbroadpowerstoservethepublicinterestasitseesfit.Stateplannersmake“top-down”decisionsaboutwhatgoodsandservicesareproducedandinwhatquantities;consumerscanspendtheirmoneyonwhatisavailable.Governmentownershipofentireindustries,aswellasindividualenterprise,ischaracteristicofcentrallyplannedsocialism.Becausedemandtypicallyexceedssupply,theelementsofthemarketingmixarenotusedasstrategicvariables.Littlerelianceisplacedonproductdifferentiation,advertising,orpromotion;toeliminate“exploitation”byintermediaries,thegovernmentalsocontrolsdistribution.Theclearsuperiorityofmarketcapitalismindeliveringthegoodsandservicesthatpeopleneedandwanthasledtoitsadoptioninmanyformerlysocialistcountries.Fordecades,theeconomiesofChina,theformerSovietUnion,andIndiafunctionedaccordingtothetenetsofcentrallyplannedsocialism.Allthreecountriesarenowengagedineconomicreformscharacterized,invaryingproportions,byincreasedrelianceonmarketallocationandprivateownership.EvenasChina’sleadersattempttomaintaincontroloversociety,theyacknowledgetheimportanceofeconomicreform.Atarecentplenum,theCommunistPartysaidthatreform“isaninevitableroadfroinvigoratingthecountry’seconomyandpromotingsocialprogress,andagreatpioneeringundertakingwithoutparallelinhistory.”CentrallyPlannedCapitalismandMarketSocialismInreality,marketcapitalismandcentrallyplannedsocialismdonotexistin“pure”form.Inmostcountries,toagreaterorlesserdegree,commandandmarketresourceallocationarepracticedsimultaneously,asareprivateandstateresourceownership.Theroleofgovernmentinmodernmarketeconomiesvarieswidely.Aneconomicsysteminwhichcommandresourceallocationisutilizedextensivelyinanenvironmentofprivateresourceownershipcanbecalledcentrallyplannedcapitalism.InSweden,forexample,wheretwo-thirdsofallexpendituresarecontrolledbythegovernment,resourceallocationismore“command”orientedthan“market”oriented.Toacertainextent,thesameistrueinJapan.Afourthvariant,marketsocialism,isalsopossible.Insuchasystem,marketallocationpoliciesarepermittedwithinanoverallenvironmentofstateownership.Forexample,ChinahasgivenconsiderablefreedomtobusinessesandindividualsintheGuangdongProvincetooperatewithinamarketsystem.Today,China’sprivatesectoraccountsformorethan75percentofnationaloutput.Evenso,stateenterprisesstillreceivemorethantwo-thirdsofthecreditavailablefromthecountry’sbanks.Inthelate1980sandearly1990s,MikhailGorbachevtriedtopreservesocialistprinciplesintheUSSRwhilepursuingpolicyofgradualeconomicreformknownasperestroika.Ultimately,however,Gorbachevwasunabletoreconciletheconflictingdemandsofhard-linerswiththoseofanincreasinglydiscontented,democracy-mindedpopulation.Hisfailuretoestablishasystemof“capitalismwithahumanface”contributedtothedissolutionoftheMarketreformsandnascentcapitalisminmanypartsoftheworldarecreatingopportunitiesforlarge-scaleinvestmentsbyglobalcompanies.Indeed,Coca-ColareturnedtoIndiain1994,twodecadesafterbeingforcedoutbythegovernment.Anewlawallowing100percentforeignownershipofenterpriseshelpedpavetheway.Bycontrast,Cubastandsasoneofthelastbastionsofthecommandallocationapproach.DanielYerginandJosephStanislawsumupthesituationinthefollowingway:Governmentsaresellingoffcompaniestheyhadnationalized,andcountriesareseekingtoenticemultinationalcorporationsexpelledjusttwodecadesearlier.Today,politiciansontheleftadmitthattheirgovernmentscannolongeraffordtheexpansivewelfarestate…Thedecampingofthestatefromthe“commandingheights”marksagreatdividebetweenthe20thand21stcenturies.Itisopeningthedoorsofmanyformerlyclosedcountriestotradeandinvestment,andvastlyincreasingtheglobalmarket.STAGESOFMARKETDEVELOPMENTGlobalcountrymarketsareatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.GNPpercapitaprovidesaveryusefulwayofgroupingthesecountries.UsingGNPasabase,wehavedividedglobalmarketsintofivecategories.Althoughtheincomedefinitionforeachofthestagesisarbitrary,countriesinthefivecategorieshavesimilarcharacteristics.Thus,thestagesprovideausefulbasisforglobalmarketsegmentationandtargetmarketing.ThecategoriesareshowninTable2-2IncomeGroupbyPerCapitaGNP2003GNP($million)2003GNPpercapita($)%ofWorldGNP2003Population(million)High-incomecountriesGNPpercapita>$9,26627,370,92228,39680.8964Upper-middle-incomecountriesGNPpercapita>$2,995but≤$9,2662,750,7434,7238.1582Lower-middle-incomecountriesGNPpercapita≥$755but≤$2,9952,642,0561,2547.82,106Low-incomecountriesGNPpercapita<$7551,107,9824343.22,554Table2-2StagesofMarketDevelopmentLow-IncomeCountriesLow-incomecountries,alsoknownaspreindustrialcountries,arethosewithGNPpercapitaoflessthan$755.Thecharacteristicssharedbycountriesatthisincomelevelare:Limitedindustrializationandahighpercentageofthepopulationengagedinagricultureandsu