Linguistics語言學(xué)歸納.doc

Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that.)phonetics（語音學(xué)）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位學(xué)）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形態(tài)學(xué)）the study of the word structure and word formation.syntax:（句法學(xué)）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (語義學(xué)) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（語用學(xué)）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1) Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually useDescriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2) Synchronic & diachronic 共時(shí)的&歷時(shí)的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3) Langue & parole 語言&言語Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4) Competence & performance 語言能力&語言運(yùn)用Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features of language:1) arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.2) Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) Duality:（雙重性）duality of structure or double articulation of language enables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 不受時(shí)空限制5) Cultural transmission 文化傳播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1) Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2) Expressive function: supplies information about the users feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.3) Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes詞素the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionFree morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself. Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生詞素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 標(biāo)出 Inflectional morphemes: (曲折詞素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) 標(biāo)出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb.Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定詞,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua)Phrase elements: specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties. 沒變形 陳述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other 6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言內(nèi)行為）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses.Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行為）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Dont say what you believe to be false.Dont say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Dont be obscure. Dont be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1) Coinage:創(chuàng)新詞Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2) Clipped words: 縮略詞Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3) Blending: 緊縮法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder4) Acronyms: 首字母縮略詞CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5) Back-formation: 逆構(gòu)詞法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6) Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreat adj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7) Borrowing Bonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony Balloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8) Derivation 派生詞Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness9) Compounds 復(fù)合詞Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-license Undertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 語域Field of discourse話語范圍: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse話語基調(diào): refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse話語方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 薩丕爾沃爾夫假說Language filters peoples perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1) The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.2) The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD) ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3) The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right timea specific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning w