Unit6Food新編大學(xué)英語第二版第二冊課文翻譯

1、unit 6 foodfood and culture1 we all have ideas about what kinds of foods are good to eat. we also have ideas about what kinds of foods are bad to eat. as a result, people from one culture often think tlie foods that people from another culture eat are disgusting or nauseating. mtien the famous boxer

2、 muhammad ali visited africa, for example, one member of his group became quite sick when lie saw someone pick up a butterfly and eat it. many people would find it disgusting to eat rats, but tliere are forty-two different cultures whose people regard rats as appropriate food.2 some people in africa

3、 think afi-ican tennites make a delicious meal. many other people would probably be sick if they had to eat termites, but one hundred grams of termites contain more than twice as many calories and almost twice as much protein as one hundred grams of cooked hamburger.3 however, food likes and dislike

4、s do not always seem related to nutrition. for example, broccoli is first on a list of the most nutritious common vegetables, but it is twenty-first on a list of vegetables that americans like most to eat. tomatoes are sixteenth on the list of most nutritious vegetables, but they are first on the li

5、st of vegetables that americans like most to eat.4 but dislike is not the only reason why some cultures will not eat a certain food. in some cultures, certain foods are taboo. taboo is a word from the language of tlie fiji islands that is used to describe something that is forbidden. some foods are

6、taboo in certain religions, but there are also other food taboos that are not connected to a religion. we do not usually think about why certain tilings are taboo in our culture. we may not even know why they are taboo. anthropologists try to discover the hidden reasons for taboos. for example, the

7、sacred cows of india are well known. cows can go wherever they want to in the streets of india, and they can eat anything they want from the supplies of tlie foodsellers on the street. as a result, the cows are a problem. however, no one in india will kill tliem or eat them. it is taboo to do so. th

8、is custom seems strange to other people, but anthropologists believe that there are reasons for it. first, cows are valuable because the farmers need them to help plow their fields. second, cow manure is used as a fertilizer on the fields. in india, many farmers cannot afford to spend money on ferti

9、lizer. third, the cow manure can be dried and burned to make cooking fires. therefore, fanners tliat kill their cows for meat soon find that they cannot plow or fertilize their fields or make a cooking fire.5 another example is that americans do not eat dogs, although people from some other cultures

10、 regard them as good food. in the united states, dogs are very important to people as pets. they are usually regarded as part of tlie family, almost like a child in some cases. in addition, dogs have value as protection against criminals. thieves will not usually enter a house where there is a dog b

11、ecause the dog will bark and possibly attack a stranger who is trying to get into a house. apparently, the dogs place in society as a companion and as protection against criminals makes the dog taboo as food.6 the taboo against eating pork occurs in more than one culture. there is some evidence that

12、 some ancient egyptians did not eat pork. the ancient israelites also regarded pork as taboo. one explanation for the pig-eating taboo is that pork that is not cooked sufficiently may spread a disease called trichinosis. however, most people no longer think that this is a good explanation for the po

13、rk taboo. another explanation is that the israelites were nomads一they were always moving from place to place. people have to stay in one place to raise pigs. the israelites did not want to stay in one place because they did not want to change their culture. as a result, they did not eat pigs.7 anthr

14、opologists believe that most food likes and dislikes are a result of the ways of life of different people. some people live in areas where there are both large animals and many insects. it is difficult for these people to kill large animals, and it requires a lot of energy. it is easier for them to

15、use insects for food because it is not difficult to catch insects and it does not require a lot of energy. nomadic people who move around will not want to keep pigs for food. people will not eat pets such as dogs. americans eat a lot of beef because there is plenty of land for raising cattle and the

16、ir meat can be shipped cheaply for long distances by railroads.飲食與文化1 對于什么樣的食物好吃，我們都有自己的主見。對于什么樣的食物不好吃，我們也有自己的 看法。因此，某種文化背景的人常常會覺得另種文化背景的人吃的食物難以忍受或者令人作嘔。 比如，在著名的拳擊手穆罕默德阿里訪問非洲時，團(tuán)里的名成員看到有人抓起只蝴蝶就吃 了下去時便惡心得想嘔吐。許多人會發(fā)覺吃老鼠肉令人惡心，但世界上有42種不同文化的人認(rèn) 為鼠肉是合適的食物。2 在非洲有些人認(rèn)為非洲白蟻可以做成美餐。對于許多其他人來說，如果非吃（白蟻）不可 的話，他們很可能會嘔吐

17、。但是，如果拿1?？说陌紫伜?0?？酥谱骱玫臐h堡包相比，前者所 含的熱量是后者的兩倍多，其所含的蛋白質(zhì)也幾乎是后者的兩倍。3 不過，對食物的好惡似乎并不定與營養(yǎng)有關(guān)。例如，花椰菜在營養(yǎng)最豐富的常見蔬菜中 排名第，但它在美國人最喜歡的蔬菜中僅名列第二十位。西紅柿在營養(yǎng)最豐富的蔬菜中排 名十六，但它在美國人最喜歡的蔬菜中卻名列榜首。.4 但不喜歡并不是某些文化（中人們）不吃某種食物的唯原因。在有些文化中，有些食物是禁忌?！敖伞?同來源于斐濟(jì)群島的語言，用來表示禁止做的事。有些食物在某些宗教中被 列為禁忌，但也有些飲食禁忌與宗教無關(guān)。通常我們不去考慮為什么在我們的文化中有些東西 是禁忌。我們也許甚

18、至不知道它們?yōu)槭裁词墙?。人類學(xué)家試圖發(fā)現(xiàn)禁忌背后隱藏的原因。例如， 印度“圣?！睘槿藗兯熘?。?？梢栽谟《鹊拇蠼稚系教幾?，它們可以吃街上食品攤主所供應(yīng)的 食物中任何它們想吃的東西。結(jié)果，牛就成了問題?？墒?，在印度沒人會去殺?；虺耘Ｈ?。殺牛 或吃牛肉是禁忌。這種習(xí)俗在其他人看起來似乎很奇怪，但人類學(xué)家相信這自有其原因。首先, 牛是很寶貴的，因為農(nóng)民需要它們幫助犁地。其次，牛糞可作地里的肥料。在印度，許多農(nóng)民買 不起肥料。還有，牛糞弄干后可用來燒火做飯。因此，殺牛食肉的農(nóng)民很快發(fā)現(xiàn)他們無法犁地, 無法給莊稼施肥，或者無燃料做飯。5 再比如，美國人不吃狗肉，盡管其他些文化背景的人視狗肉為佳肴。在美

19、國，狗作為寵物 對人們極為重要。通常它們被視為家庭的部分，有時甚至還把狗當(dāng)成自己的孩子。此外，狗的 價值還在于防范罪犯。盜賊般不進(jìn)入有狗的住宅，因為狗會吠叫，而且可能會襲擊試圖進(jìn)入屋 廣的陌生人。顯而易見，狗在社會中作為伙伴及防范罪犯的衛(wèi)士的角色使吃狗肉成為禁忌。6 不止種文化忌食豬肉。有跡象表明些古埃及人不吃豬肉。古代以色列人也視豬肉為禁 忌對禁食豬肉的種解釋是，未被煮透的豬肉可能會傳播種疾病，叫旋毛蟲病。但大多數(shù)人 不再認(rèn)為這能很好地解釋禁食豬肉的原因。另種解釋是以色列人原屬游牧民族一一他們總是居 無定所。要養(yǎng)豬，人們就得在某地定居下來。從前以色列人不愿在個地方定居，因為他們不想 改變自己

20、的文化。正因如此，他們便不食豬肉。7 人類學(xué)家相信，對食物的好惡大多是不同人不同生活方式的結(jié)果。有些人生活在既有大型動物又有許多昆蟲的地區(qū)。他們殺死大型動物有困難，需要花很大的力氣。對他們來說，以昆蟲為 食要容易些，因為捕捉昆蟲既不困難又不需花太大的力氣。四處流動、過游牧生活的人不愿意為 吃肉而養(yǎng)豬。人們也不吃像狗那樣的寵物。美國人牛肉吃得很多，因為有大量的土地可用來養(yǎng)牛， 而且牛肉可以通過鐵路以低廉的價格進(jìn)行長途運(yùn)輸。the menujim heimann1 food history tells us that in early restaurants the recitation of t

21、he available food dishes became an increasingly time-consuming chore; tlierefore, written menus were developed to help guide diners in their eating choices. this written menu was commonly handwritten on a chalkboard or listed on a board that could be easily seen by the customers. developments in pri

22、nting finally led to a change and the larger restaurants1 floor plans made a single handwritten menu impractical, so printed menus were introduced.2 delmonicos restaurant in new york city is often given credit for introducing the first printed menu in the united states in 1834. that menu, as well as

23、 others of the period, was simple in design and offered specific information. special occasions led to a call for unique designs and eventually led to more highly decorated menus.3 for the most part, however, menu decoration followed the art movements of the time. the liiglily decorated late 19th ce

24、ntury menus, which were influenced by victorian art, gave way to modern art in the 20th century. developments with graphics and printing allowed distinctive menu cover art.4 by the 1930s, the menu was seen as a part of the restaurant plan to create a memorable meal. it could develop an appetite, tel

25、l a joke, explain a food item, create a mood, tell something of the history of the restaurant, and, above all, sell some food. restaurant trade publications encouraged the use of tlie menu as part of the business strategy, and tlie national restaurant association promoted effective menu graphics in

26、its annual competition of best menus in the nation. its guidelines forjudging included (1) originality, (2) legibility, (3) ease of handling, and (4) sales effectiveness. restaurant management magazine in its november 1935 issue stated that most restaurant owners considerably underestimated the impo

27、rtance of the appearance of the menu. the magazine went on to say that the menu really has two important functions: (1) to sell food, and (2) to repeat and emphasize the unique atmosphere of that restaurant.5 in spite of the depression of the 1930s, restaurants did well and menu design became import

28、ant. there were increasing numbers of many different types of restaurants during this decade, including cafeterias, drive-ins, and lunch counters in stores, as well as tlie traditional, more fonnal restaurants. many of the restaurants developed themes in food, decoration and menu styles.6 progress i

29、n printing, photography, and especially color photography opened upmore opportunities for creative expression. during the second world war food rationing often hurt tlie business of restaurants, but as soon as victory was achieved, eating out became very popular again.7 in spite of the risks of casu

30、al dining and fast-food restaurants, the mid-20th century provided many new oppoitunities for creative menu design. by the end of the 1960s, the increasingly popular coffee shops and restaurants that featured a singular item such as pizza, steak, or pancakes used new menu graphics. the 1970s brought

31、 a decline in eating out, but the 1980s, especially in homes where both parents were working, brought a big increase in the demand for many types of restaurants. since then, menu design has provided the american public witli a pleasing prelude to the dining experience.8 some popular historians are s

32、tudying menus as a very special kind of documentation of americas love of eating out. for many generations of diners, taking a restaurant menu has been a way of presendng a memory or documenting a trip or a voyage. many restaurants have provided customers with souvenir versions of their menus. tlie

33、restaurant owners believe that this is a good way of advertising. thus the menu now serves a new, but also important function.菜單1 飲食的歷史告訴我們：在早期的餐館里，背訕餐館供應(yīng)的菜肴成為越來越耗時的苦差事；因 此，就產(chǎn)生了書面的菜單，以便指導(dǎo)用餐者挑選食物。這種菜單通常是手工寫在黑板上或列在 塊牌r上，黑板或牌r都要使顧客容易看見。印刷業(yè)的發(fā)展最終又引發(fā)了變革，同時又因為些 餐館層面的擴(kuò)大使得份手寫菜單滿足不了實際需求，于是印刷菜單出現(xiàn)了。2 紐約市譙爾莫尼柯餐館

34、于1834年在美國首次推出印刷菜單，因而常常受到人們的贊揚(yáng)。那 種菜單，與同時期的其它菜單樣，設(shè)計簡單，還提供了具體明確的信息。特殊的場合會引發(fā)人 們對設(shè)計的獨特要求，最終產(chǎn)生了裝飾更精美的菜單。3 然而，多數(shù)情況下，菜單的裝飾風(fēng)格是隨著時代的藝術(shù)潮流而變化的。19世紀(jì)后期的菜單， 受維多利亞時代藝術(shù)的影響，裝飾華麗，到了 2。世紀(jì)就被現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)所取代。平面造型藝術(shù)與印 刷術(shù)的發(fā)展使得頗具特色的菜單封面藝術(shù)得以發(fā)展。4 到了 2。世紀(jì)3。年代，餐館為打造令人難忘的美餐，把菜單看作是實施這種計劃的部分。 菜單可以引起食欲，講個笑話，介紹某食品，創(chuàng)造種氛圍，講述點飯店的歷史，而且最重要 的是，推銷菜

35、肴。餐飲業(yè)的出版物則鼓勵把菜單作為經(jīng)營策略的部分。全國餐飲協(xié)會每年舉辦 全國最優(yōu)秀菜單競賽，屆時會有效地促進(jìn)菜單平而造型藝術(shù)的發(fā)展。指導(dǎo)這種評比的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括（1） 有創(chuàng)意（2）清晰易讀（3）使用方便（4）銷售效果好。1935年11月這期的飯店管理雜 志指出：大多數(shù)飯店老板都在很大程度上低估了菜單外觀的重要性。該雜志接著說道，菜單其實 有兩種重要的功能：（1）推銷菜肴（2）反復(fù)突出飯店的獨特魅力。5 盡管3。年代經(jīng)濟(jì)人蕭條，飯店卻生意良好，菜單設(shè)計也變得很重要。這十年內(nèi)，飯店種類 不斷增多，除了傳統(tǒng)的較正規(guī)的飯店以外，還出現(xiàn)了如自助餐廳，免下車餐館，商店里的小吃部 等。許多飯店在菜肴、裝飾和菜單風(fēng)

36、格上還發(fā)展了自己的主題格調(diào)。6 印刷，攝影，尤其是彩色攝影方面的進(jìn)步為有創(chuàng)意的表現(xiàn)手法開拓了更多的機(jī)會。第二次 世界大戰(zhàn)期間，食品的定量供應(yīng)常常影響飯店的生意，但是勝利后，出去吃飯就又馬上流行起來 了。7 盡管人們對吃飯越來越隨意，同時快餐店大批涌現(xiàn)，但是2。世紀(jì)中葉還是為有創(chuàng)意的菜單 設(shè)計提供了很多新的機(jī)會。到6。年代末期，越來越受歡迎的小吃部和以專賣比薩餅、年代外出 就餐的人減7。牛排或薄煎餅等特色食品的飯館都采用r新的菜單平面設(shè)計藝術(shù)一 少了。但是到了 8。年代，特別是那些父母都上班工作的家庭，使各種各樣餐館的需求量大幅度 增加。從那時起，菜單設(shè)計就為美國公眾就餐提供了賞心悅目的前奏。8

37、 些通俗歷史學(xué)家正在研究菜單，他們把菜單當(dāng)作美國人外出吃飯喜愛程度的種特殊文獻(xiàn)資料。對于好幾代的就餐者來說，帶走飯店的菜單直是他們保留段記憶或記錄某次旅行或 航行的手段。許多飯店為顧客提供專門留念用的菜單。飯店老板們相信這是種很好的廣告手段。 因此，現(xiàn)在菜單又多了一種新的但也是很重要的功能。cooking and cuisines1 one tiling that separates man from animals is mans preference for cooked food. tlie higher apes have been found to share with mankin

38、d the ability to communicate by sound and gesture, but no ape lias ever cooked its food. we also like our food to appeal to our senses of taste and smell, and we like it to be attractive. our senses are remarkably acute and discriminating, and all societies which have progressed beyond simple surviv

39、al satisfy the human pleasure of good food. the great cuisines of the world have developed dishes which appeal both to tlie taste and to the eye-color and texture are as important as flavor.2 tliere are three acknowledged great national cuisines, french, indian and chinese. french cooking is general

40、ly acknowledged to be supreme in europe. french cuisine using butter, cheese and cream is typical of all gieat national cuisines: it combines simplicity with sophistication, uses the native resources of france, has great regional specialties and has become truly international.3 these three major cui

41、sines have distinguished themselves each by one major characteristic. french cooking with butter, cheese and cream is so typical of their cooking tliat if omitted the whole character of the cuisine would be destroyed. also, wine in cooking is as instinctive to a french cook as tlie use of soy sauce

42、is to a chinese cook. a second cuisine-indian cooking is distinguished by the use of spices. the third cuisine is defined by the use of rice as a staplecliina being the supreme example. of course these tliree cuisines share their characteristics in one way or another. french cuisine can boast some f

43、amous rice dishes. some indian regional cookery also makes use of butter and the dishes of sichuan, in chinese cuisine, are famous for their fiery spices. but tlie separation into tliree major cuisines does mark some kind of distinctive characteristic and the three major cuisines, each based on a di

44、fferent major characteristic, have persisted for a long time throughout human history.4 the borderlines between cuisine styles are clear and have changed less than tospices of use tlie is world the to gift indias boundaries, racial or linguistic either enliance the flavor of foods, and indian cookin

45、g presents a dazzling array of regional variations一from the fiery hot curries of tlie south to the subtly spiced vegetarian dishes of the northern regions. nothing rivals the color and flavor of indian dishes, and the use of rice as a staple links indian and chinese cooking. chinese cooks teach us t

46、hat texture must never be neglected. long ago the chinese brought to perfection the art of swift cooking at very high temperature in which vegetables retain tlieir crispness and nutritional goodness too. most of the preparation time is taken up by the cutting of vegetables and the chopping of meat,

47、not by the actual cooking process.5 the regional variety of chinese dishes is bewildering to the foreigner. spicy, bland, sour and sweet are all represented. no national cuisine uses the native plants and animals more than the chinese. every part of every edible vegetable or animal seems to have its

48、 use.6 there are tliree recent threats to keeping national cuisines ：1) the revolution in world transportation and communication, 2) the increase m trade between nations, and 3) tlie changing role of women in society.7 rapid and inexpensive transport and communication may threaten national cuisines.

49、 travelers from other countries want the kind of food tliey are used to at home. tlie second threat is caused by the flow of foods and food products from one country to another. convenience foods destroy the charm of time-consuming cooking. an argument can be made for processed foods, and the great

50、benefits of freezing, freeze-dtying and canning, but western food technology is still a threat to national cuisines.8 finally, the changing role of women influences national styles of cooking. the changes which have already taken place have had a profound effect on the family, and will continue. wom

51、en have been the prime food preparers for thousands of years. if they have less time and less inclination to spend long hours in food preparation and cooking, this will influence the kind of dishes which a family eats. now women can explore furtlier tlian their own immediate locality and experience,

52、 and gather ideas and recipes from other parts of the world, and incorporate these into their cooking. however, the threat to national cuisines remains perhaps even reinforced by the obvious benefits mentioned. 9 to preserve distinctive national cuisines may have something to do with human behavior. what unites all great national cuisines, besides regional variety, ingenious use of available resources and an influence on international eating habits, is the attitude toward f