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1、.United 1 材料科學(xué)與工程材料在我們的文化中比我們認(rèn)識(shí)到的還要根深蒂固。如交通、房子、衣物,通訊、娛樂(lè)和食物的生產(chǎn),實(shí)際上,我們?nèi)粘I钪械拿恳徊糠侄蓟蚨嗷蛏俚厥艿讲牧系挠绊?。歷史上社會(huì)的發(fā)展、先進(jìn)與那些能滿(mǎn)足社會(huì)需要的材料的生產(chǎn)及操作能力密切相關(guān)。實(shí)際上,早期的文明就以材料的發(fā)展程度來(lái)命名,如石器時(shí)代,銅器時(shí)代。早期人們能得到的只有一些很有限的天然材料,如石頭、木材、粘土等。漸漸地,他們通過(guò)技術(shù)來(lái)生產(chǎn)優(yōu)于自然材料的新材料,這些新材料包括陶器和金屬。進(jìn)一步地,人們發(fā)現(xiàn)材料的性質(zhì)可以通過(guò)加熱或加入其他物質(zhì)來(lái)改變。 在這點(diǎn)上, 材料的應(yīng)用完全是一個(gè)選擇的過(guò)程。也就是說(shuō),在一系列非常有限的材
2、料中,根據(jù)材料的優(yōu)點(diǎn)選擇一種最適合某種應(yīng)用的材料。直到最近,科學(xué)家才終于了解材料的結(jié)構(gòu)要素與其特性之間的關(guān)系。這個(gè)大約是過(guò)去的 60年中獲得的認(rèn)識(shí)使得材料的性質(zhì)研究成為時(shí)髦。 因此, 成千上萬(wàn)的材料通過(guò)其特殊的性質(zhì)得以發(fā)展來(lái)滿(mǎn)足我們現(xiàn)代及復(fù)雜的社會(huì)需要。很多使我們生活舒適的技術(shù)的發(fā)展與適宜材料的獲得密切相關(guān)。 一種材料的先進(jìn)程度通常是一種技術(shù)進(jìn)步的先兆。比如,沒(méi)有便宜的鋼制品或其他替代品就沒(méi)有汽車(chē)。在現(xiàn)代,復(fù)雜的電子器件取決于所謂的半導(dǎo)體零件。材料科學(xué)與工程有時(shí)把材料科學(xué)與工程細(xì)分成材料科學(xué)和材料工程學(xué)科是有用的。 嚴(yán)格地說(shuō), 材料科學(xué)涉及材料到研究材料的結(jié)構(gòu)和性質(zhì)的關(guān)系。 相反, 材料工程是
3、根據(jù)材料的結(jié)構(gòu)和性質(zhì)的關(guān)系來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)或操縱材料的結(jié)構(gòu)以求制造出一系列可預(yù)定的性質(zhì)。 從功能方面來(lái)說(shuō), 材料科學(xué)家的作用是發(fā)展或合成新的材料,而材料工程師是利用已有的材料創(chuàng)造新的產(chǎn)品或體系,和/或發(fā)展材料加工新技術(shù)。多數(shù)材料專(zhuān)業(yè)的本科畢業(yè)生被同時(shí)訓(xùn)練成材料科學(xué)家和材料工程師?!皊tructure”一詞是個(gè)模糊的術(shù)語(yǔ)值得解釋。簡(jiǎn)單地說(shuō),材料的結(jié)構(gòu)通常與其內(nèi)在成分的排列有關(guān)。原子內(nèi)的結(jié)構(gòu)包括介于單個(gè)原子間的電子和原子核的相互作用。在原子水平上,結(jié)構(gòu)包括原子或分子與其他相關(guān)的原子或分子的組織。 在更大的結(jié)構(gòu)領(lǐng)域上, 其包括大的原子團(tuán),這些原子團(tuán)通常聚集在一起,稱(chēng)為“微觀”結(jié)構(gòu),意思是可以使用某種顯微鏡直接
4、觀察得到的結(jié)構(gòu)。最后,結(jié)構(gòu)單元可以通過(guò)肉眼看到的稱(chēng)為宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)?!癙roperty” 一詞的概念值得詳細(xì)闡述。在使用中,所有材料對(duì)外部的刺激都表現(xiàn)出某種反應(yīng)。比如,材料受到力作用會(huì)引起形變,或者拋光金屬表面會(huì)反射光。材料的特征取決于其對(duì)外部刺激的反應(yīng)程度。通常,材料的性質(zhì)與其形狀及大小無(wú)關(guān)。實(shí)際上,所有固體材料的重要性質(zhì)可以概括分為六類(lèi):機(jī)械、電學(xué)、熱學(xué)、磁學(xué)、光學(xué)和腐蝕性。對(duì)于每一種性質(zhì),其都有一種對(duì)特定刺激引起反應(yīng)的能力。如機(jī)械性能與施加壓力引起的形變有關(guān), 包括彈性和強(qiáng)度。 對(duì)于電性能, 如電導(dǎo)性和介電系數(shù), 特定的刺激物是電場(chǎng)。固體的熱學(xué)行為則可用熱容和熱導(dǎo)率來(lái)表示。 磁學(xué)性質(zhì)表示一種材
5、料對(duì)施加的電場(chǎng)的感應(yīng)能力。對(duì)于光學(xué)性質(zhì),刺激物是電磁或光照。用折射和反射來(lái)表示光學(xué)性質(zhì)。最后,腐蝕性質(zhì)表示材料的化學(xué)反應(yīng)能力。除了結(jié)構(gòu)和性質(zhì),材料科學(xué)和工程還有其他兩個(gè)重要的組成部分,即加工和性能。如果考慮這四個(gè)要素的關(guān)系,材料的結(jié)構(gòu)取決于其如何加工。另外,材料的性能是其性質(zhì)的功能。因此,材料的加工、結(jié)構(gòu)、性質(zhì)和功能的關(guān)系可以用以下線性關(guān)系來(lái)表示:加工結(jié)構(gòu)性質(zhì)性能。為什么研究材料科學(xué)與工程.為什么研究材料科學(xué)與工程.許多應(yīng)用科學(xué)家或工程師,不管他們是機(jī)械的、民事的、化學(xué)的或電子的領(lǐng)域的, 都將在某個(gè)時(shí)候面臨材料的設(shè)計(jì)問(wèn)題。 如用具的運(yùn)輸、 建筑的超級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)、油的精煉成分、 或集成電路芯片。 當(dāng)然
6、, 材料科學(xué)家和工程師是從事材料研究和設(shè)計(jì)的專(zhuān)家。很多時(shí)候, 材料的問(wèn)題就是從上千個(gè)材料中選擇出一個(gè)合適的材料。 對(duì)材料的最終選擇有幾個(gè)原則。首先,現(xiàn)場(chǎng)工作條件必須進(jìn)行表征。只有在少數(shù)情況下材料在具有最優(yōu)或理想的綜合性質(zhì)。 因此, 有必要對(duì)材料的性質(zhì)進(jìn)行平衡。 典型的例子是當(dāng)考慮材料的強(qiáng)度和延展性時(shí),而通常材料具有高強(qiáng)度但卻具有低的延展性。這時(shí)對(duì)這兩種性質(zhì)進(jìn)行折中考慮很有必要。其次, 選擇的原則是要考慮材料的性質(zhì)在使用中的磨損問(wèn)題。 如材料的機(jī)械性能在高溫或腐蝕環(huán)境中會(huì)下降。最后, 也許是最重要的原則是經(jīng)濟(jì)問(wèn)題。 最終產(chǎn)品的成本是多少.一種材料的可以有多種理想的優(yōu)越性質(zhì),但不能太昂貴。這里對(duì)材
7、料的價(jià)格進(jìn)行折中選擇也是可以的。產(chǎn)品的成本還包括組裝中的費(fèi)用。工程師與科學(xué)家越熟悉材料的各種性質(zhì)、結(jié)構(gòu)、功能之間的關(guān)系以及材料的加工技術(shù),根據(jù)以上的幾個(gè)原則,他或她對(duì)材料的明智選擇將越來(lái)越熟練和精確。Unit 2 Classification of MaterialsSolid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and
8、 atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are three other groups of important engineering materialscomposites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.譯文:固體材料被便利的分為三個(gè)基本的類(lèi)型:金屬,陶瓷和聚合物。這個(gè)分類(lèi)是首先基于化學(xué)組成和原子結(jié)構(gòu)來(lái)分的,大多數(shù)材料
9、落在明顯的一個(gè)類(lèi)別里面,盡管有許多中間品。除此之外, 有三類(lèi)其他重要的工程材料復(fù)合材料,半導(dǎo)體材料和生物材料。Composites consist of combinations of two or more different materials, whereas semiconductors are utilized because of their unusual electrical characteristics; biomaterials are implanted into the human body. A brief explanation of the material t
10、ypes and representative characteristics is offered next.譯文:復(fù)合材料由兩種或者兩種以上不同的材料組成,然而半導(dǎo)體由于它們非同尋常的電學(xué)性質(zhì)而得到使用;生物材料被移植進(jìn)入人類(lèi)的身體中。關(guān)于材料類(lèi)型和他們特殊的特征的一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的解釋將在后面給出。METALSMetallic materials are normally combinations of metallic elements. They have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons ar
11、e not bound to particularatoms. Many properties of metals are directly able to these electrons.be bound to 被約束于。be attribute to 歸屬于。歸因于。譯文:金屬材料通常由金屬元素組成。它們有大量無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng)的電子。也就是說(shuō),這些電子不是被約束于某個(gè)特定的原子。金屬的許多性質(zhì)直接歸屬這些不規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng)的電子。Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat and are not transparent to
12、visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. Furthermore, metals are quite strong, yet deformable, which accounts for their extensive use in structural applications.科技英語(yǔ)在講述科學(xué)真理的時(shí)候通常用主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。如: Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity Deformable .譯文:金屬是十分好的電和熱的導(dǎo)體,它們對(duì)可見(jiàn)光不
13、透明;一個(gè)拋光的金屬表面有光輝的外表。除此之外,金屬是十分硬的,也是可變形的,這個(gè)性質(zhì)解釋了它們廣泛使用在結(jié)構(gòu)方面的應(yīng)用。CERAMICSCeramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The wide range of materials that falls within this classification includes ceramics that are composed of cla
14、y minerals, cement, and glass.that引導(dǎo)的定語(yǔ)從句譯文:陶瓷是介于金屬和非金屬元素之間的化合物;它們通常是氧化物,氮化物和碳化物。落在這個(gè)分類(lèi)種類(lèi)中的寬的材料范圍包括陶瓷,它們由粘土礦物,水泥和玻璃組成。These materials are typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat, and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With reg
15、ard to mechanical behavior, ceramics are hard but very brittle.more. Than.with regard to.譯文:這些材料是典型的電和熱的絕緣體,并且它們比金屬和聚合物更加耐高溫和耐苛刻的環(huán)境。至于機(jī)械性能,陶瓷是硬的但是卻很脆。POLYMERSPolymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen,
16、and other nonmetallic elements; furthermore, they have very large molecular structures. These materials typically have low densities and may be extremely flexible.譯文:聚合物包括常見(jiàn)的塑料和橡膠材料。它們中的大多數(shù)是有機(jī)化合物,這些化合物是以化學(xué)的方法把碳、氫和其他非金屬元素組合而成。因此,它們有非常大的分子結(jié)構(gòu)。這些材料通常有低的密度并且可能十分柔軟。COMPOSITESA number of composite material
17、s have been engineered that consist of more than one material type. Fiberglass is a familiar example, in which glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material.more than譯文:許多復(fù)合材料被作用工程使用,它們由至少一種類(lèi)型的材料組成。玻璃絲是一個(gè)熟悉的例子,玻璃纖維被埋入聚合物材料中。A composite is designed to display a combination of the best charact
18、eristics of each of the component materials. Fiberglass acquires strength from the glass and flexibility from the polymer. Many of the recent material developments have involved composite materials. 譯文:為了聯(lián)合顯示每一種組分材料最好的特性,一種復(fù)合材料被設(shè)計(jì)出來(lái)。玻璃絲從玻璃中獲得強(qiáng)度并且從聚合物中獲得柔軟性。最近發(fā)展中的絕大多數(shù)材料包含了復(fù)合材料。SEMICONDUCTORSSemicondu
19、ctors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors and insulators. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, which concentrations may be controlled over very
20、 small spatial regions. be sensitive to 對(duì)敏感的譯文:半導(dǎo)體有電的性質(zhì),它們是介于電導(dǎo)體和絕緣體之間的中間物。除此之外,這些材料的電學(xué)性質(zhì)對(duì)微量雜質(zhì)原子的存在十分敏感,雜質(zhì)原子濃度可能只是在一個(gè)十分小的區(qū)域內(nèi)可以控制。The semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention ourlives)
21、over the past two decades.譯文:這些半導(dǎo)體使得集成電路的出現(xiàn)變得可能,在過(guò)去20多年間,這些集成電路革新了電子裝置和計(jì)算機(jī)工業(yè)(更不用說(shuō)我們的生活)。BIOMATERIALSBiomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human bodyfor replacement of diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with bo
22、dy tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions).譯文:生物材料被應(yīng)用于移植進(jìn)入人類(lèi)身體以取代病變的或者損壞的身體部件。這些材料不能產(chǎn)生有毒物質(zhì)而且必須同人身體器官要相容(比如,不能導(dǎo)致相反的生物反應(yīng))。All of the above materialsmetals, ceramics, polymers,composites, and semiconductorsmay be used as biomaterials. For example, some of the biomaterials such as CF
23、/C (carbon fibers/carbon) and CF/PS (polysulfone) are utilized in artificial hip replacements.譯文:所有以上材料金屬,陶瓷,聚合物,復(fù)合材料和半導(dǎo)體材料可能用作生物材料。比如,如CF/C和CF/PS(聚砜)這些生物材料被用作人工腎的取代物。ADVANCED MATERIALSMaterials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed advanced materials.
24、 By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles; examples include electronic equipment (VCRs, CD players, etc.), computers, fiberoptic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.譯文:用在高科技中的材料有時(shí)被稱(chēng)作先進(jìn)材料。借助于高科技,
25、我們預(yù)定一個(gè)裝置或者產(chǎn)品,這些產(chǎn)品用相對(duì)復(fù)雜和熟練的原理運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)或者起作用;這些例子包括電子設(shè)備( VCRs, CD 播放器),計(jì)算機(jī),光纖系統(tǒng),宇宙飛船,航天飛機(jī)和軍事火箭。These advanced materials are typically either traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced or newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals,
26、ceramics, polymers), and are normally relatively expensive.譯文:這些高級(jí)材料或是典型的傳統(tǒng)材料,它們的性質(zhì)被提高,最近開(kāi)發(fā)出來(lái)的,高性能材料。除此之外,它們可能是所有材料類(lèi)型(比如,金屬、陶瓷和聚合物),通常相對(duì)較貴。In subsequent chapters are discussed the properties and applications of a number of advanced materialsfor example, materials that are used for lasers, integrated
27、 circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs),fiber optics, and the thermal protection system for the Space Shuttle Orbiter.譯文: 在下面的章節(jié)將討論眾多先進(jìn)材料的性質(zhì)和應(yīng)用比如被用作激光,集成電路,磁信息存儲(chǔ),液晶顯示器,光纖和空間艙軌道的熱保護(hù)系統(tǒng)的材料。MODERN MATERIALS NEEDSIn spite of the tremendous progress that has been made in th
28、e discipline of materials science and engineering within the past few years, there still remain technological challenges, including the development of even more sophisticated and specialized materials, as well as consideration of the environmental impact of materials production. Some comment is appr
29、opriate relative to these issues so as to round outthis perspective.譯文:在過(guò)去幾年內(nèi),不論材料科學(xué)與工程的規(guī)律取得了巨大的進(jìn)步,仍然有一些技術(shù)挑戰(zhàn),包括開(kāi)發(fā)更加熟練的專(zhuān)業(yè)化的材料,并且考慮材料生產(chǎn)對(duì)環(huán)境導(dǎo)致的影響。針對(duì)這個(gè)問(wèn)題,一些評(píng)論是十分相關(guān)的。Nuclear energy holds some promise, but the solutions to the many problems that remain will necessarily involve materials, from fuels to cont
30、ainment structures to facilities for the disposal of radioactive waste.譯文:核能還保持著一些承諾,但是解決許多仍然存在的問(wèn)題,將有必要把材料包括在里,從燃料到保護(hù)結(jié)構(gòu)以便方便處置這些放射性廢料。Significant quantities of energy are involved in transportation. Reducing the weight of transportation vehicles (automobiles, aircraft, trains, etc.), as well as incre
31、asing engine operating temperatures, will enhance fuel efficiency. New high strength,low-density structural materials remain to be developed, as well as materials that have higher-temperature capabilities, for use in engine components.譯文:相當(dāng)數(shù)量的能源用在交通上。減少交通工具(汽車(chē),飛機(jī),火車(chē)等)的重量,和提高引擎操作溫度,將提高燃料的使用效率。新的高強(qiáng),低密
32、度結(jié)構(gòu)材料仍在發(fā)展,用作引擎部位能耐高溫材料也在發(fā)展中。Furthermore, there is a recognized need to find new, economical sources of energy, and to use the present resources more efficiently. Materials will undoubtedly play a significant role in these developments.譯文:除此之外,尋找新的、經(jīng)濟(jì)的能源資源,并且更加有效的使用目前現(xiàn)存的資源是公認(rèn)為必須的。材料將毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)的在這些發(fā)展過(guò)程中扮演重要
33、的角色。For example, the direct conversion of solar into electrical energy has been demonstrated. Solar cells employ some rather complex and expensive materials. To ensure a viable technology, materials that are highly efficient in this conversion process yet less costly must be developed.譯文:比如,太陽(yáng)能直接轉(zhuǎn)化為
34、電能已經(jīng)被證實(shí)了。太陽(yáng)能電池使用相當(dāng)復(fù)雜并且昂貴的材料。為了保證技術(shù)的可行,在這個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)化過(guò)程中的高效但不貴的材料必須被發(fā)展。Furthermore, environmental quality depends on our ability to control air and water pollution. Pollution control techniques employ various materials. In addition, materials processing and refinement methods need to be improved so that theyp
35、roduce less environmental degradation, that is, less pollution and less despoilage of the landscape from the mining of raw materials.譯文:除此之外,環(huán)境質(zhì)量取決于我們控制大氣和水污染的能力。污染控制技術(shù)使用了各種材料。再者,材料加工和精制的方法需要改善以便它們產(chǎn)生很少的環(huán)境退化,也就是說(shuō),在生材料加工過(guò)程中,帶來(lái)更少的污染和更少的對(duì)自然環(huán)境的破壞。Also, in some materials manufacturing processes, toxic sub
36、stances are produced, and the ecological impact of theirdisposal must be considered.Many materials that we use are derived from resources that are nonrenewable, that is, not capable of being regenerated.These include polymers, for which the prime raw material is oil, and some metals. These nonrenewa
37、ble resources aregradually becoming depleted.譯文:也,在一些材料生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中,有毒物質(zhì)產(chǎn)生了,并且它們的處置對(duì)生態(tài)產(chǎn)生的影響必須加以考慮。我們使用的許多材料來(lái)源于不可再生的資源,不可再生也就是說(shuō)不能再次生成的。這些材料包括聚合物,最初的原生材料是油和一些金屬。這些不可再生的資源逐漸變得枯竭which necessitates: 1) the discovery of additional reserves, 2) the development of new materials having comparable properties with le
38、ss adverse environmental impact, and/or 3) increased recycling efforts and the development of new recycling technologies.譯文:下面是必須的:1)發(fā)現(xiàn)另外的儲(chǔ)藏,2)開(kāi)發(fā)擁有較少負(fù)環(huán)境影響的新材料,3)增加循環(huán)的努力并且開(kāi)發(fā)新的循環(huán)技術(shù)。As a consequence of the economics of not only production but also environmental impact and ecological factors, it isbecom
39、ing increasingly important to consider the cradle-to-grave life cycle of materials relative to the overall manufacturing process.譯文:結(jié)果,不僅是生產(chǎn),而且環(huán)境影響和生態(tài)因子,和材料整個(gè)生產(chǎn)過(guò)程緊密相關(guān)的材料“一生”的生命周期的考慮變得越來(lái)越重要。Unit3 Atomic Structure of Materials 1 眾所周知 所有的物質(zhì)都是由原子組成的。在下面周期表中我們可以知道僅僅大約有100多種不同種類(lèi)的原子存在于整個(gè)宇宙中,從我們呼吸的空氣,到各種各樣性
40、質(zhì)迥異的金屬成千上萬(wàn)的物種均是由一百多種原子組成的。金屬與陶瓷有不同表現(xiàn)行為,陶瓷又與聚合物有所差異。物質(zhì)的性能取決于組成他們的原子類(lèi)型以及原子的結(jié)合方式。材料的結(jié)構(gòu)可以根據(jù)我們所認(rèn)為的各種特性的的數(shù)量級(jí)來(lái)分類(lèi),三種最常見(jiàn)的主要結(jié)構(gòu)上的分類(lèi)通常按尺寸的增大列出它們是,原子的結(jié)構(gòu)是指不可見(jiàn)的結(jié)構(gòu)例如原子間的結(jié)合方式以及原子的排布。微觀結(jié)構(gòu)是指不能同肉眼觀察到而能用顯微鏡觀察到的結(jié)構(gòu)。宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)是指可以用肉眼直接觀察到的結(jié)構(gòu)。 2 原子結(jié)構(gòu)主要影響物質(zhì)的化學(xué)性質(zhì)、物理性質(zhì)、耐熱性、電性、磁性、光學(xué)性質(zhì)。微觀結(jié)構(gòu)和宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)也能影響這些性質(zhì)但它們通常在力學(xué)性質(zhì)和化學(xué)反應(yīng)速率方面的影響更大。材料的性能為材
41、料的結(jié)構(gòu)提供了一定的線索。金屬的具有的強(qiáng)度就說(shuō)明構(gòu)成他的原子是通過(guò)很強(qiáng)的成健能力結(jié)合在一起的.然而由于金屬經(jīng)常成型,這些結(jié)合力必須允許原子運(yùn)動(dòng)。為了了解材料的結(jié)構(gòu),我們必須知道原子所呈現(xiàn)的類(lèi)型,原子是如何排布的、如何結(jié)合的。 3 從基礎(chǔ)化學(xué)我們知道任何元素的原子結(jié)構(gòu)都是有被電子圍繞的帶正電的原子核組成。一個(gè)元素的原子數(shù)目顯示了原子核中帶正電的質(zhì)子數(shù)。為了確定在一個(gè)原子里有多少中子,只需要把原子的數(shù)目從原子的重量中減去。 4 原子具有平衡的電荷。因此,通常有和質(zhì)子數(shù)目相同的帶負(fù)電荷的電子圍繞在原子核周?chē)N覀兌贾离娮右圆煌哪芰看嬖冢切﹪@在原子核周?chē)碾娮涌梢苑奖愕恼J(rèn)為是一個(gè)能源層。例如。
42、鎂原子序數(shù)是12 最內(nèi)層有兩個(gè)電子 8個(gè)電子,最外層有兩個(gè)電子。 所有的化學(xué)鍵都包含電子。如果原子共用一個(gè)或多個(gè)電子時(shí)他們會(huì)保持很緊密。當(dāng)原子沒(méi)有部分填充的電子層時(shí),它們會(huì)處于最穩(wěn)定的狀態(tài)。如果一個(gè)原子在電子層上僅有幾個(gè)電子那么它就趨向于失去電子使電子層變空。這些即是金屬元素。當(dāng)金屬原子結(jié)合,金屬鍵就出現(xiàn)了。Unit10 Introduction to Ceramic MaterialsThe word "ceramic" is derived from the G
43、reek keramos, which means "potter's clay" or "pottery." Its origin is a Sanskrit term meaning "to burn." So the early Greeks used "keramous"
44、 when describing products obtained by heating clay-containing materials. The term has long included all products made from fired clay, for example, bricks, fireclay refractories,
45、160;sanitaryware, and tableware. “陶瓷”這個(gè)詞是來(lái)自希臘keramos,這意味著“陶土”或“”。它的起源是梵文術(shù)語(yǔ),意思是“燃燒”。因此,早期的希臘人用“keramous”描述加熱含粘土的物料獲得的產(chǎn)品。這個(gè)詞早已包括所有陶土制成的產(chǎn)品,例如,磚,粘土質(zhì)耐火材料,衛(wèi)生潔具,餐具。In 1822, refractory silica were first made. Although they contained no cl
46、ay, the traditional ceramic process of shaping, drying, and firing was used to make them. So the term" ceramic," while retaining its original sense of a product
47、 made from clay, began to include other products made by the same manufacturing process. The field of ceramics (broader than the materials themselves) can be defined
48、;as the art and science of making and using solid articles that contain as their essential component a ceramic. This definition covers the purification of raw materials,&
49、#160;the study and production of the chemical compounds concerned, their formation into components, and the study of structure, composition, and properties. 1822年,耐火材料二氧化硅被首次提出。雖然他們中沒(méi)有粘土,傳統(tǒng)陶瓷的塑造過(guò)
50、程,干燥和燒成使用,使它們。所以說(shuō),“陶瓷”,同時(shí)保留其原來(lái)意義上的粘土制成的產(chǎn)品,開(kāi)始向包括由同一制造工藝制成的其他產(chǎn)品。陶瓷比材料本身更廣泛的領(lǐng)域可以被定義為制作和使用含有固體的文章作為自己的重要組成部分陶瓷藝術(shù)和科學(xué)。這個(gè)定義涵蓋了原料的凈化,研究和生產(chǎn)有關(guān)的化學(xué)成分,他們到組件的形成,結(jié)構(gòu),組成和性質(zhì)的研究。Ceramics are usually associated with "mixed" bonding-a combination of covalent, i
51、onic, and sometimes metallic. They consist of arrays of interconnected atoms; there are no discrete molecules. This characteristic distinguishes ceramics from molecular solids suc
52、h as iodine crystals (composed of discrete I2 molecules) and paraffin wax (composed of long-chain alkane molecules). It also excludes ice, which is composed of discrete H
53、20 molecules and often behaves just like many ceramics. The majority of ceramics are compounds of metals ormetalloids and nonmetals. Most frequently they are oxides, nitrides,
54、 and carbides. 陶瓷通常與“混合”接合的共價(jià)鍵,離子,有時(shí)金屬結(jié)合。他們組成的相互聯(lián)系的原子陣列;沒(méi)有離散的分子。這一特點(diǎn)區(qū)分,如碘晶體(離散碘分子組成)和石蠟(長(zhǎng)鏈烷烴分子組成)分子固體的陶瓷。它也排除了冰,這是由離散的水分子,往往表現(xiàn)就像許多陶瓷。大多數(shù)陶瓷,金屬或非金屬化合物和非金屬。他們最常見(jiàn)的氧化物,氮化物和碳化物。However, diamond and graphite are also classified as ceramics. These&
55、#160;forms of carbon are inorganic in the most basic meaning of the term: they were not prepared from the living organism. 然而,金剛石和石墨也被歸類(lèi)為陶瓷。這些形式的碳是無(wú)機(jī)一詞的最基本的含義:他們不準(zhǔn)備從活的有機(jī)體。GeneralProperties一般屬性Cer
56、amics generally have specific properties associated with them. We will look at some properties and see how closely they match our expectations of what constitutes a ceram
57、ic. 陶瓷一般都與他們相關(guān)的特定屬性。我們將看看一些屬性,看看他們?nèi)绾尉o密匹配何謂陶瓷我們的期望。Brittleness脆性Thisprobablycomesfrompersonalexperiencessuchasdroppingaglassbeakeroradinner_plate.Thereasonthatthemajorityofceramicsarebrittleisthemixedionic-covalentbondingthatholdstheconstituent atoms together. At high te
58、mperatures (above the glass transition temperature), glass no longer behaves in a brittle manner; it behaves as a viscous liquid. That is why it is easy to form
59、;glass into intricate shapes. So what we can say is that most ceramics are brittle at room temperature but not necessarily at elevated temperatures. 這可能來(lái)自于個(gè)人的經(jīng)驗(yàn),如刪除一個(gè)玻璃燒杯或餐盤(pán)。大多數(shù)陶瓷是
60、易碎的原因是共同持有的組成原子的混合離子共價(jià)鍵。在高溫(玻璃化轉(zhuǎn)變溫度以上),玻璃不再表現(xiàn)脆性的方式,它作為一種粘性液體的行為。這就是為什么它很容易形成復(fù)雜形狀的玻璃。因此,我們可以說(shuō)是大多數(shù)陶瓷在室溫下很脆,但在高溫下不一定。Poorelectricalandthermalconduction惡劣的電氣和熱傳導(dǎo)Thevalenceelectronsaretiedupinbonds,andarenotfreeastheyareinmetals.Inmetalsitisthefreeelectrons-theelectrongas-thatdeterminesmanyoftheirelectri
61、calandthermalproperties.Diamond, which is classified as a ceramic, has the highest thermal conductivity of any known material. The conduction mechanism is due to Phonons, not elect
62、rons. Ceramics can also have high electrical conductivity,(1)the oxide ceramic, ReO3, has an electricalconductivityatroomtemperaturesimilartothatofCu;(2)themixedoxideYBa2Cu3O7isanHTSC;ithaszeroresistivitybelow92K.價(jià)電子被捆綁起來(lái)的債券,是不是免
63、費(fèi)的,因?yàn)樗麄冊(cè)诮饘?。在金屬,它是自由電子的電子氣,決定其電氣和熱性能。鉆石,這是作為陶瓷的分類(lèi),有任何已知的材料的導(dǎo)熱系數(shù)最高。傳導(dǎo)機(jī)制是由于聲子,沒(méi)有電子。陶瓷也可以有高導(dǎo)電性,(1)氧化物陶瓷,ReO3,有一個(gè)類(lèi)似的銅在室溫下的電導(dǎo)率;(2)混合氧化物YBa2Cu3O7是高溫超導(dǎo);它具有零電阻低于92K。These are two examples that contradict the conventional wisdom when it comes to
64、;ceramics. 這些都違背了傳統(tǒng)的智慧,當(dāng)談到陶瓷的兩個(gè)例子。Compressivestrength抗壓強(qiáng)度Ceramicsarestrongerincompressionthanintension,whereasmetalshavecomparabletensileandcompressivestrengths.Thisdifferenceisimportantwhenweuseceramiccomponentsforload-bearingapplications.Itisnecessaryto consider the stress
65、;distributions in the ceramic to ensure that they are compressive. An important example is in the design of concrete bridges-the concrete, a CMC, must be kept in com
66、pression. Ceramics generally have low toughness, although combining them in composites can dramatically improve this property. 陶瓷在緊張的壓縮比,而金屬具有可比性的抗拉和抗壓強(qiáng)度。這種差異是很重要的,當(dāng)我們使用承載應(yīng)用的陶瓷元件。這是有必要考慮在陶瓷的應(yīng)力分布,以確保它們是壓縮。一個(gè)重要的例子是在設(shè)
67、計(jì)的混凝土橋梁,混凝土,中央軍委,必須保持在壓縮。陶瓷一般有韌性低,雖然復(fù)合材料相結(jié)合,可以極大地提高這個(gè)屬性。Chemicalinsensitivity化學(xué)不靈敏度Alargenumberofceramicsarestableinbothharshchemicalandthermalenvironments.Pyrexglassisusedwidelyinchemistrylaboratoriesspecificallybe-causeitisresistanttomanycorrosivechemicals,stableathightemperatures (it do
68、es not soften until 1100K), and is resistant to thermal shock because of its low coefficient of thermal expansion (33×10-7K-1). It is also widely used in bakeware.
69、160;大量的陶瓷,在苛刻的化學(xué)和熱環(huán)境是穩(wěn)定的。硼硅玻璃是在化學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)室中廣泛使用,具體原因是抵抗許多腐蝕性化學(xué)品的,穩(wěn)定的高溫(不軟化,直到1100K),抵抗熱沖擊,由于其低的熱膨脹系數(shù)(33×10-7K-1)。它也被廣泛用于在烤盤(pán)。Transparent透明ManyceramicsaretransparentbecausetheyhavealargeEg.Examplesincludesapphirewatchcovers,preciousstones,andopticalfibers.Glassopticalfibershaveapercenttransmission>96%km-1.Metalsaretransparenttovisiblelightonly when they are very thin, typically less
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