南大社會學(xué)理論教學(xué)課件(成伯清)共84p

1、西方社會學(xué)理論成伯清南京大學(xué)社會學(xué)系課程學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)社會學(xué)洞察力（sociological insight）社會學(xué)想象力（sociological imagination）社會學(xué)傳統(tǒng)（the sociological tradition）西方社會學(xué)理論的敘述框架人物 (the thinkers, masters)流派 (the systems, the schools, the isms)觀念 (the ideas, the elements of systems)主題 (the themes, the leitmotifs)以現(xiàn)代性為主線(sociology=the study of moder

2、nity) the problematics of sociology is the project of modernity傳統(tǒng)現(xiàn)代性后現(xiàn)代性 經(jīng)典大師 主要流派 核心主題經(jīng)典社會學(xué)家側(cè)重于解釋和診斷從傳統(tǒng)到現(xiàn)代的轉(zhuǎn)變機制及其問題（宏大歷史敘事與問題取向）（三位一體與三大神話）；現(xiàn)代社會學(xué)家側(cè)重于完善解釋現(xiàn)代社會的理論體系（學(xué)科化、學(xué)院化與范式之爭）；當(dāng)代社會學(xué)家側(cè)重于新現(xiàn)實的探索與社會學(xué)本身的重新定位(后現(xiàn)代性與否思社會科學(xué))。西方現(xiàn)代性的形成發(fā)展西方現(xiàn)代性形成過程中的關(guān)鍵事件：歐洲中古后期城市的興起（11-13C）-自治文藝復(fù)興運動（14-15C）-“人的發(fā)現(xiàn)”海外探險及殖民主義（15-

3、19C）-“世界的發(fā)現(xiàn)”資本主義（14-20C）民族國家（16C）科學(xué)革命（17C）啟蒙運動（18C）：a set of ideas政治革命（18C）工業(yè)革命（18-19C）西方與其他（the west and the rest） 社會學(xué)理論中的東方主義（orientalism）社會學(xué)的起源孔孟之爭 Montesquieu(1689-1755):empiricism Comte(1798-1857):order and progress 社會學(xué)革命（sociological revolution）與時代精神（zeitgeist） 社會學(xué)譜系的不斷重寫 不同的圣典化（canonization）策

4、略Classic Masters馬克思 Karl Marx (1818-1883)迪爾凱姆 Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)齊美爾 Georg Simmel (1858-1918)韋伯 Max Weber (1864-1920)迪爾凱姆（涂爾干）主要著作：社會分工論（1893）必讀：第二版序言、第三卷第一章“失范的分工”社會學(xué)方法的準(zhǔn)則（1895）第一章“什么是社會事實”自殺論（1897）Book Two:5, “失范型自殺”原始分類（1903）宗教生活的基本形式（1912）“導(dǎo)言”、第二卷第七章基本關(guān)懷：現(xiàn)代世界中共同道德力量的衰落The declining streng

5、th of the common morality in the modern world迪爾凱姆（涂爾干）核心概念社會事實(social facts)： Any “way of acting” capable of “exercising an external constraint on the individual”, “general throughout” a given society Social facts are to be treated as things functional and causal explanationsDurkheim社會團(tuán)結(jié)(social soli

6、darity) What holds society together? mechanical and organic solidarity social order vs. individual autonomy repressive law- restitutive law 失范(anomie)Homo duplex (the duality of human nature)迪爾凱姆（涂爾干）自殺(suicide) 為何研究自殺： 自殺的增多乃現(xiàn)代社會病態(tài)之體現(xiàn); 自殺乃personal &private之事，若能在此最為不利的情況下證明集體生活仍然支配著個人的命運，豈不妙哉!Durkhe

7、im根據(jù)原因來劃分類型: integration: lowegoistic suicide（利己型自殺） (整合) highaltruistic suicide（利他型自殺）regulation: lowanomic suicide(失范型自殺) (管制) highfatalistic suicide(宿命型自殺)Integration refers to the degree to which collective sentiments are sharedRegulation refers to the degree of external constraint on people.迪爾凱

8、姆（涂爾干）Religion: God or Society?The sacred and the profaneBeliefs, rites,church: A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them.“宗教力量非他，乃氏族之集體和莫名力量耳”Collective effervescenceReligion is society becoming

9、conscious of itself迪爾凱姆（涂爾干）Morality:現(xiàn)代社會的苦惱，并不集中于特定的階級，而是普遍存在于整個社會?！百Y本家憂心如焚，工人則不滿和憤怒”社會問題不是經(jīng)濟問題，而是道德問題。組織起來，提高覺悟，將個人融合于具有道德權(quán)威的集體調(diào)整現(xiàn)代工業(yè)失范狀態(tài)最有限的手段是市民社會中的職業(yè)聯(lián)合體（occupational associations）道德教育的要素： 紀(jì)律（discipline）精神 對社會群體的依戀（attachment to group） 自主（a sense of autonomy）或知性精神: willingly accepted by virtue o

10、f enlightened assent韋伯主要著作：新教倫理與資本主義精神（1904-5） （必讀：導(dǎo)論、第五章“禁欲主義與資本主義精神”）經(jīng)濟與社會（1922）（社會學(xué)的基本概念）學(xué)術(shù)生涯與政治生涯（1918）儒教與道教（1916）（“導(dǎo)論”，“結(jié)論”）民族國家與經(jīng)濟政策韋伯政治著作選（On Socialism）基本關(guān)懷：西方文明的理性化（rationalization）（世界歷史進(jìn)程？）韋伯Sociology . . . is a science concerning itself with the interpretive understanding of social action

11、and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences. We shall speak of action insofar as the acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to his behavior-be it overt or covert, omission or acquiescence. Action is social insofar as its subjective meaning takes account of the behav

12、ior of others and is thereby oriented in its courseWeber核心概念：理解(verstehen)Understanding, interpretation,explanation理想類型(ideal type)An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occa

13、sionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct. . . . In its conceptual purity, this mental construct . . . cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality. It is a utopia .價值(values)Value-fre

14、e/neutrality, value relevance韋伯社會行動 (social action)：工具理性行動(instrumentally rational) is determined by expectations as to the behavior of objects in the environment and of other human beings; these expectations are used as conditions or means for the attaiment of the actors own rationally pursued and

15、calculated ends.價值理性行動(value-rational) is determined by a conscious belief in the value for its own sake of some ethical, aesthetic, religious, or other form of behavior, independently of its prospects for success. 情感性行動(affectual/emotional) is determined by the emotional state of the actor.傳統(tǒng)性行動(tr

16、aditional) is determined by the actors habitual and customary ways of behaving.Weber社會分層（social stratification）Multidimensional: economic order Class social order status political order party韋伯權(quán)威類型（authority）：法理型權(quán)威(rational-legal)科層制傳統(tǒng)型權(quán)威(traditional)家長制感召型權(quán)威(charismatic，克理斯瑪)理性化(rationalization)實用理

17、性，理論理性，實質(zhì)理性，形式理性社會的麥當(dāng)勞化（McDonaldization）WeberNot ideas, but material and ideal interests, directly govern mens conduct. Yet very frequently the world images that have been created by ideas have, like switchmen, determined the tracks along which action has been pushed by the dynamic of interest Weber

18、宗教與資本主義的崛起新教倫理與資本主義精神選擇性親合（elective affinity）意外后果（unintended consequences）中國的宗教與資本主義韋伯論題（Weber thesis）的局限齊美爾主要著作：論社會分化（1890）社會學(xué)：社會交往形式研究（1908）社會學(xué)的基本問題（1917）貨幣哲學(xué)（1900）基本關(guān)懷：現(xiàn)代性的診斷（成伯清：格奧爾格齊美爾：現(xiàn)代性的診斷，2019年）齊美爾核心概念：社會互動（social interaction）形式社會學(xué)（formal sociology）：社會幾何學(xué)(social geometry) 數(shù)量(number) 二人關(guān)系（dy

19、ad）& 三人關(guān)系（triad） 距離(distance)齊美爾社會類型(social types)窮人（the poor）外來人（the stranger，異鄉(xiāng)人，陌生人）社會形式(Social forms) 支配-從屬（superordination-subordination）Subordination under an individual a plurality a principle齊美爾文化悲?。╟ultural tragedy）客觀文化與主觀文化(objective vs. subjective)貨幣哲學(xué)最純粹的工具形式變?yōu)槟康谋旧硪磺袣w諸 how much，量化，還原理性、計

20、算的性格非人格化，物化社會學(xué)的專業(yè)化與學(xué)院化兩次世界大戰(zhàn)與社會學(xué)中心的轉(zhuǎn)移 從歐洲到美國 美國社會學(xué)重鎮(zhèn)的遷移 芝加哥學(xué)派的衰落 常春藤聯(lián)盟的崛起 美國社會學(xué)鐵三角： Parsons-Merton-Lazarsfeld現(xiàn)代主要流派功能主義（functionalism）Parsons, Merton沖突理論（conflict theory）Dahrendorf, Coser交換理論（exchange theory）Homans, Blau符號互動論（symbolic interactionism）功能主義帕森斯（Talcott Parsons，1902-1979）的主要觀點：系統(tǒng)或抽象功能主義意

21、愿行動理論（voluntaristic theory of action）： 規(guī)范性取向（normative orientation）行動者(actor)-可能的手段-目標(biāo)(end) 情境 situation（conditions、means）功能主義模式變項（pattern variables）普遍主義-特殊主義(universalism-particular ism)先賦-自致(ascription-achievement)情感性-情感中立性(affectivity-affective neutrality)專一性-擴散性(specificity-diffuseness)自我取向-集體取向

22、(Self-collectivity) 源于Tonnies的二分（dichotomy）：Gemeinschaft與Gesellschaft 更早Maine: status society vs. contract society功能主義AGIL公式 任何系統(tǒng)都需滿足四個要求，且由不同的子系統(tǒng)來承擔(dān)相應(yīng)功能： A：adaptation 適應(yīng) 行為有機體G：goal-attainment 達(dá)鴣 人格系統(tǒng)I：integration 整合 社會系統(tǒng)L：latency 維模 文化系統(tǒng)AAdaptation (A). Each system exists in an environment, and mu

23、st be able to adapt to this environment. In the process of adaptation, the environment is also affected and may be adapted to the society. This is the mobilization of resources so that the system can survive and that things can be done to meet goals of the system. GGoal Attainment (G). Each system h

24、as certain purposes associated with it. The goals of the system must be defined, means of attempting to achieve these goals must be laid out, and then these goals must be achieved. Within the social system, the polity (political sphere and government) is an important aspect of this, setting and alte

25、ring the goals for the society as a whole, and mobilizing actors and resources to that end.IIntegration (I). This is the means by which social relationships, and interrelationships among units or groups, are regulated. At the level of society as a whole, there are a variety of institutions that do t

26、his. Religion, education, the media, the legal structures police and courts all play a role. ( societal community). Where strains are great, there may be a need for social control, formal and informal sanctions, or discipline to enforce order. LLatency (L) or pattern maintenance (P). also refers to

27、this as the cultural-motivational system. For Parsons, All institutionalization involves common moral as well as other values” . The organizations and roles that perform latent functions can be regarded as those that furnish, maintain, and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural pa

28、tterns that create and sustain this motivation. Parsons refers to these as fiduciary, that is, founded on trust. At the level of the social system, these are schools, educational institutions, and the major institution that is concerned with the latent function is kinship and family or other forms o

29、f personal relationships. Social SystemA social system consists in a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the optimization of gratification and whose relatio

30、n to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols (Parsons, 1951, pp. 5-6).功能主義進(jìn)化變遷范式（a paradigm of evolutionary change）分化（differentiation）適應(yīng)力提升（adaptive upgrading）吸納（inclusion）價值普遍化（value generalization）發(fā)展性突破（develo

31、pmental breakthrough）進(jìn)化三階段：primitive, intermediate, modern功能主義默頓（Robert K. Merton,1910-2019）： 經(jīng)驗功能主義 “社會學(xué)先生”中層理論（middle-range theory,中程理論）功能分析范式（functional analysis）： 正功能、反功能、無功能（eu-/ dys-/non） 顯功能、潛功能（manifest-/ latent-） 功能替代（functional substitutes）Theories of the middle rangeSociological theory: l

32、ogically interconnected sets of propositions from which empirical uniformities can be derived.Theories of the middle range: theories that lie between the minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day-to-day research and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to develop a u

33、nified theory that will explain all the observed uniformities of social behaviour, social organization and social change. A paradigm of functional analysis1. The item(s) to which functions are imputed.a standardized(patterned and repetitive) item2. Concepts of subjective dispositions (motives, purpo

34、ses) 3. Concepts of objective consequencesA paradigm of functional analysisFunctions are those observed consequences which make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system; and dysfunction, those observed consequences which lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the system. -The empirical pos

35、sibility of nonfunctional consequences.A paradigm of functional analysisManifest functions are those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment of adaptation of the system which are intended and recognized by participants in the system.Latent functions,correlatively, being those which are

36、 neither intended nor recognized.A paradigm of functional analysis4. Concepts of the unit subserved by the function5. Concepts of functional requirements (needs, prerequisites)6. Concepts of the mechanisms through which functions are fulfilled.7. Concepts of functional alternatives(functional equiva

37、lents or substitutes)A paradigm of functional analysis8. Concepts of structural context (or structural constraint) :The interdependence of the elements of a social structure limits the effective possibility of change or functional alternatives.9. Concepts of dynamics and changeA paradigm of function

38、al analysis10. Problems of validation of functional analysisIt requires a system review of the possibility and limitations of comparative (cross-cultural and cross-group) analysis.11. Problems of the ideological implications of functional analysis.功能主義自我實現(xiàn)的預(yù)言（self-fulfilling prophecy） unintended con

39、sequences of social action越軌行為（deviance）適應(yīng)模式 文化目標(biāo) 制度化手段 遵從 + + 創(chuàng)新 + - 儀式主義 - - 隱退主義 - -沖突理論達(dá)倫多夫（Ralph Dahrendorf,1929）辯證沖突論“走出烏托邦”有關(guān)社會的沖突模型（conflict model of society）揭示社會的另一方面 強調(diào)沖突、強制、變遷（conflict, coercion, constraint, change），而非共識、均衡和穩(wěn)定（consensus, coherence, equilibrium, stability，integration, harm

40、ony）沖突理論“后資本主義社會”資本的解體（the decomposition of capital）勞動力的解體（labor）新中間階級的發(fā)展（new middle class）社會流動的增長（social mobility）平等程度的提高（the growth of equality）沖突理論社會沖突的根源：權(quán)威分配的不平等結(jié)構(gòu)性產(chǎn)生的沖突（structurally generated conflict）ICA：強制性協(xié)作團(tuán)體（imperatively coordinated association）社會沖突的形成：利益，潛在利益，顯現(xiàn)利益準(zhǔn)群體（quasi group），利益群體，沖突

41、群體利益群體形成的條件（技術(shù)、政治、社會、心理）沖突理論社會沖突的程度強度（intensity）影響因素：沖突關(guān)系的重疊程度 權(quán)威關(guān)系與其他報酬分配的相關(guān)程度 社會流動的程度烈度（violence）影響因素：社會經(jīng)濟的剝奪程度 沖突的調(diào)節(jié)程度沖突理論科塞（Lewis Coser,1913-2019）theories of conflict兩種變遷系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的變遷（change within a system） 緩慢的、邊緣性的和調(diào)適性的變遷系統(tǒng)的變遷（change of a system） 更為激進(jìn)和徹底的變遷：新體制，新的政治體系沖突理論決定何種變遷最有可能發(fā)生的主要社會結(jié)構(gòu)性變量，是控制機制的

42、靈活性越是僵化，越有可能導(dǎo)致系統(tǒng)的變遷；越是靈活，越有可能導(dǎo)致系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的變遷沖突具有重要的功能解決沖突的努力可能導(dǎo)致整合沖突理論沖突容許群體調(diào)整自身的結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)興現(xiàn)有的規(guī)范或者引入新的規(guī)范沖突可以充當(dāng)一種估量現(xiàn)有群體的相對力量的方式，從而強化或者調(diào)整權(quán)力的平衡有助于在群體之間建立聯(lián)盟有助于維持群體邊界創(chuàng)造安全閥機制（safety-valve institutions）沖突理論兩種類型的沖突： realistic conflict vs. nonrealistic conflict現(xiàn)實性沖突手段工具性工具適用性手段替代非現(xiàn)實性沖突目的表意性攻擊滿足感對象替代其他因素：情感喚起，人格投入，意識形態(tài)等社會

43、交換理論霍曼斯（George Homans,1910-1989 ）行為主義交換論“恢復(fù)人的地位”（Bringing men back in ）經(jīng)濟人+心理學(xué)之鴿=經(jīng)濟鴿？解釋、演繹、還原的策略基本概念社會交換理論一般命題系統(tǒng)：成功命題刺激命題價值命題剝奪-滿足命題攻擊-贊同命題理性命題 (A = pV)Actor = a rational profit seekerPower-dependence relationsRichard Emerson (1925-1982)“Power-dependence Relations”, American Journal of Sociology,196

44、2,Vol. 27.A depends upon B if he aspires to goals or gratifications whose achievement is facilitated by appropriate actions on Bs part. Power resides implicitly in the others dependency.Power-dependence relationsDependence (Dab). The dependence of actor A upon actor B is (1) directly proportional to

45、 As motivational investment in goals mediated by B, and (2)inversely proportional to the availability of those goals to A outside of the A-B relation.Power-dependence relationsPower (Pab). The power of actor A over actor B is the amount of resistance on the part of B which can be potentially overcom

46、e by A.Pab=DbaPba=DabPower advantage=Pab-PbaPower-dependence relationsHow to reduce power advantage?Cost reduction Balancing operationsCost reduction is a process involving change in values (personal, social, economic) which reduces the pains incurred in meeting the demands of a powerful other.Power

47、-dependence relationsBalancing operations:Pab=Dba V VPba=DabBalance can be restored either by an increase in Dab or by a decrease in Dba.Power-dependence relationsFour operations:1. If B reduces motivational investment in goals mediated by A; withdrawal2. If B cultivates alternative sources for grat

48、ification of those goals; extension of power network3. If A increases motivational investment in goals mediated by B; emergence of status4. If A is denied alternative sources for achieving those goals. coalition formationPower-dependence relationsCoalition formationThe organized groupRole-prescripti

49、onsGroup normsAuthorityEmergence of statusThe extreme importance of the availability factor in dependency as a determinant of status position and the values employed in status ordering.社會交換理論布勞（Peter Blau, 1918-2019）結(jié)構(gòu)交換論or dialectical exchange theoryExchange and Power in Social Life, 1964An importa

50、nt effort to theoretically integrate large- and small-scale sociological issues.From elementary forms of behavior to complex social structure社會交換理論從人際交換到社會結(jié)構(gòu)到社會變遷 個人之間的交換交易 地位和權(quán)力的分化 合法化和組織 反抗和變遷基本過程： 吸引-競爭-分化-整合復(fù)雜社會結(jié)構(gòu)中以規(guī)范和價值作為調(diào)節(jié)機制符號互動論視角的重要性New perspective means new reality符號互動論作為一種視角的特點：并不專注于個體及其人格

51、特征，也不專注于社會結(jié)構(gòu)或社會情境如何導(dǎo)致個體行動，而是專注于互動的性質(zhì)，即個人之間發(fā)生的動態(tài)的社會活動。社會是由互動的個體組成。個人和社會皆因互動而變化符號互動論人被理解為是在“現(xiàn)在”行動。起作用的不是過去所發(fā)生的一切，而是現(xiàn)在所發(fā)生的一切。過去通過記憶作用于當(dāng)下的情境，未來作為目標(biāo)而影響現(xiàn)在。互動不僅是指個體之間，還指個體之內(nèi)所發(fā)生的一切。人們在一個他們界定的世界中行動，這種界定既受與之互動的他人的影響，也是自己界定的結(jié)果。符號互動論所描述的人類，要比其他視角所呈現(xiàn)的人類，更具主動性和不可預(yù)測性。人類可以根據(jù)自己有意識的選擇來指導(dǎo)自己的行動，評估自己和他人的行動，然后可能修正自己的行動路線

52、。人在一定程度上是自由的。符號互動論重要概念：鏡中我（looking-glass self）(Cooley)自我發(fā)展階段（Mead）玩耍階段-重要他人（significant other）游戲階段-概化他人（generalized other）主我（I），客我（Me）情境定義（definition of the situation）托瑪斯定理（Thomas theorem）If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.擬劇分析（dramaturgy）戈夫曼（Irving Goffman，1922-19

53、82）社會即舞臺，社會行動即表演（performance）印象整飾（impression management）分析框架：劇本期望，劇班，前臺，后臺，觀眾隔離，理想化表演，誤解表演等等常人方法學(xué)（ethnomethodology）加芬克爾（Harold Garfinkel,1917）對于主流社會學(xué)的批判：文化傀儡（cultural dopes）可說明性（accountability）索引性（indexicality）索引性表達(dá)（indexical expression）客觀性表達(dá)（objective expression）反身性（reflexivity）新理論運動（new theoretical movement）發(fā)展線索（GRitzer的敘述框架）：The 1960s: Sociology, a Multiple Paradigm Science The social facts paradigm (structural-functionalism, conflict theor