新編簡明英語語言學(xué)教程

1、-. z.Linguistics ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. General Linguistics ：The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. language ：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication. Design Features ：It refers to the de

2、fining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of munication.Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The scope of linguistics：The study of language as a whole is

3、 often called general linguistics. (普通語言學(xué))The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic munication, is called phonetics.語音學(xué)The study of how sounds are put together and used in munication is called phonology. 音系學(xué)The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphol

4、ogy. 形態(tài)學(xué)The study of how morphemes and words are bined to form sentences is called synta*句法學(xué)The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 語義學(xué)The study of meaning in conte*t of use is called pragmatics. 語用學(xué)The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. 社會語言學(xué)The s

5、tudy of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. 心理語言學(xué)1.寬式音標(biāo)Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音標(biāo)Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音VoicelessWhen the

6、 vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.濁音Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no artic

7、ulators e very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.輔音Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位Phoneme The basic unit in

8、phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位變體Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we u

9、se when speaking a language. 10.最小對立對Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way e*cept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above the level of

10、the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互補分布plementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in plementary distribution. 13.語言的語音媒介Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which

11、 are meaningful in human munication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 14.爆破音stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or plete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a

12、plosive. they areb p t d k g 1.詞素Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由詞素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏著詞素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes th

13、at canot be used by themselves, must be bined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.詞根Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.詞綴Affi* The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only whe

14、n added to another morpheme. 6.曲折詞綴inflectional affi*es The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affi*es, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生詞綴Derivational affi*es The manifestation of relation between stems and affi*es through the addition of deri

15、vational affi*es. 8.詞干Stem A stem is the e*isting form to which a derivational affi* can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affi* can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前綴Prefi

16、* Prefi*es modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, e*ceptions are the prefi*es be- and en(m)- 11.后綴Suffi* Suffi*es are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In

17、using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 1.句子sentence A structurally independent unit that usually prises a number of words to form a plete statement, question or mand. 2.語言運用Linguistic petence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.

18、謂語Predicate The part of a sentence which prises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定式子句Finite Clause A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.附屬子句Embedded Clause (E C

19、) In a plete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句Matri* Clause In a ple*ed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matri* clause. 7.層次構(gòu)造Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and s

20、hows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.語法關(guān)系Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9.句法類型Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the s

21、ubject or object. 10.表層構(gòu)造S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深層構(gòu)造D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍語法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which con

22、sists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. 13.移動 規(guī)則Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位Syntactic movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.

23、轉(zhuǎn)換原則Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.*標(biāo)桿理論*-bar theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single form

24、at :*Spec*(pl). 1.命名論The naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to b

25、e labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. 2.意念論The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the m

26、ind. 3.語境論Conceptualism Its based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable conte*ts. her are two kinds of conte*t: the situational and the linguistic conte*t. 4.行為主義論Behaviorism It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situ

27、ation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 5.意義Sense Its concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. Its the collection of all the features of the linguistic

28、 form, its abstract and de-conte*tualized. 6.所指意義Reference It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of e*perience. 7.同義詞Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of m

29、eaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 8.多義詞Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 9.同音(形)異義Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same

30、form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 10.同音異義Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 11.同形異義Homographs It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n. 12.上下義關(guān)系Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a

31、 more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 13.反義詞Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 14.成分分析法ponential Analysis-分析詞匯抽象意

32、義 Its a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning ponents, called semantic features. 15.述謂構(gòu)造分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出 Its a new approach for sentential mean

33、ing analysis. Predication is usually considered an important mon category shared by propositions, questions, mands ect. 通過對論元argument和謂語predicate的分析，到達(dá)對句子意義進(jìn)展分析的許多模式中的一種。 16.先設(shè)前提Presupposition Its a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 17.蘊涵Entailment Entailment can be illus

34、trated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.1.語境Conte*t The notion of conte*t is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker a

35、nd the hearer. 2.言語行為理論Speech act theory Its an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. its a philosophical e*planation of the nature of linguistic munication. it aims to answer the question what do we do when using language The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act,

36、the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory. 3.表達(dá)句Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.; 4.行為句Perf

37、ormatives Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. 5.言內(nèi)行為Locutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literal meaning by means of synta*, le*icon and phonology. 6.言外行為Illcotionary

38、Act An illocutionary act is the act of e*pressing the speakers intention its the act performed in saying something. 7.言后行為 Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. its the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. 8.句子意義Se

39、ntence meaning It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. 9.話語意義Utterance meaning It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of munication

40、, it bees and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered. 10.合作原則Cooperative Principle Its proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be poss

41、ible for them to carry on the talk. 11.會話含義Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice, it refers to the e*tra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speakers Langue和parole的區(qū)別 U.S.A linguist N.ChomskyN.Chomsky in1950針對Saussures langue&parol

42、e提出petence和performance 曾經(jīng)對語言概念下過定義的語言學(xué)家 Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of munication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall-language is the institution whereby humans municate and interact with each other by means of habitually used or

43、al-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. U.S.A Linguist Charles HockettCharles Hockett -design features 1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that the

44、re have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 2.how are the English consonants classified By place of articulation and By manner of art

45、iculation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist why 語音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同語音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別為什么 Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differenc

46、es. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. 4.whats a phone how is it different from a phoneme how are allophone

47、s related to a phoneme Phonea speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic conte*ts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set why is it important to identify the minimal set in

48、a language為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中非常重要 Minimal pairtwo sound binations identical in every way e*cept in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外,其他局部都一樣的兩個語音組合. Minimal seta group of sound binations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the

49、minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組,音位學(xué)家能區(qū)分出它的音位. 6.E*plain with e*amples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcriptiondiacritics are added to the one-letter sy

50、mbols to show the finer differences between sounds. 7.e*plain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by cop

51、ying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.省略規(guī)則Deletion rule Its a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.話語的言外之義是說話人通過成心違反*一準(zhǔn)則而獲得這種聽者能懂的暗含之意。 1.語用學(xué)的幾個重要的理論 言語行為理論Speech act theory 由英國哲學(xué)家John Austin在20世

52、紀(jì)50年代末提出 會話原則CP 邏輯哲學(xué)家Paul Grice提出; 2. 合作原則的準(zhǔn)則4Ma*im of Cooperative Principle 數(shù)量 the ma*im of Quantity-你說的話應(yīng)包含所需內(nèi)容且不可超過內(nèi)容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 質(zhì)量the ma*im of Quality -不要說你認(rèn)為是假的話或你缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話 Do not say what y

53、ou believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 關(guān)系 the ma*im of relation-使你的話與話題相關(guān)be relevant 方式 the ma*im of manner-防止模糊、歧義，應(yīng)簡明有序 Avoid obscurity of e*pression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly. 3.六七十年代時，美國哲學(xué)語言學(xué)家John Searle對言外行為分成了5類 闡述性Representatives-to mit the speaker to so

54、methings being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例詞:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 指令性Directives-are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例詞:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有實例 承諾性missives-when speaking

55、 the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例詞:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型 表達(dá)類E*pressives-the speaker is e*pressing his feelings or attitude towards an e*isting state of affairs. 例詞:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告類Declarations-the successful performance of an act of this type brings a

56、bout the correspondence between what is said and reality. 4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的區(qū)分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of munication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in conte*t, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the

57、 conte*t of use. 5.語境中聽者與說話者shared knowledge is of two types: The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic munication is taking place. 6.Sentence meaning與Utter

58、ance meaning的區(qū)別 Sentence meaning-abstract, deconte*tualized. Utterance meaning-concrete, conte*tualized its based on sentence meaning, its the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of munication, or simply in a conte*t. 區(qū)分句子和話句，類似區(qū)分語義和語用學(xué)，關(guān)鍵在于是否考慮語境。 7.While most utte

59、rances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are plete sentences In terms of synta*, some utterances are not, and some cant even be restored to plete sentences1.描述變化的本質(zhì)characterized the nature of language change All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal a

60、nd inevitable,but also systematic,e*tensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all ponents of the grammar. 2.語言變化的原因list the major causes of language change Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing與語法變化有關(guān) 語音同化Sound assimilation Assimilativ