語言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)資料

語言學(xué)Chapter7Language,Culture,andSocietyWhatisculture?廣義:thepatternsofbrief,customs,institutions,techniques,language.俠義:referstolocalorspecificpractice,belieforcustoms.TherelationshipBetweenLanguageandCultureParttowhole（languageisapartofculture.）LanguagecantransportCulture.ANTHROPOLOTICALATUDYOFLINGUISTICS（人類語言學(xué)）定義:studylanguageinasocioculturalcontext.人物1.Malinowski提出:Themeaningofawordgreatlydependeduponitsoccurrenceinagivencontext.Languagefunctionsasalinkinconcertedhumanactivity.人物2.Firth:倫敦學(xué)派〈LondonSchool》的創(chuàng)始人）：HedevelopedhisowntheoryofCONTEXTOFSITUATION（情景語境理論）.情景語境理論:A.Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants,persons,personalities:Theverbalactionoftheparticipants.參與者的言語行為Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants.參與者的非皆語行為Therelevantobjects.相關(guān)事物Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.言語行為的影響Firth,whospeaks（orwrites）whatlanguage（orwhatlanguagevariety）towhomandwhenandtowhatend.（Fishman,1972:46）.ETHNOGRAPHYOFCOMMUNICATION（民族文化交際學(xué)、交際民族學(xué)）Hymes,1972提出:Aspeechcommunityreferstoagroupofpeoplewho'sharenotonlythesamerulesofspeaking,butatleastonelinguisticvarietyaswell'Situation,eventandactarethreeunitsofinteraction.Puttogether,theseunitsformanestedhierarchythatcanbeusedtostudyhowmembersformagivencommunityspeaktoeachother.SPEAKING:S=Situation（場(chǎng)景）,P=Participants（參與者），E=Ends（目的），A=Actsequence（相關(guān)形式和內(nèi)容）,K=Key（語氣）,1=Instrumentalities（語式），N=Norms（準(zhǔn)則）,G=Genres（體裁）SAPIR-WHORFHYPOTHESES:是由SapirandWhorf兩人提出.LinguisticDeterminism（語言決定論）：languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatternsLinguisticRelativity（語言相對(duì)主義）：Differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.Similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.7.1.2MoreabouttheSapir-WhorfHypothesisSAPIR-WHORFHYPOTHESES:thishypothesisprimarilysuggestsisthatourlanguagewillmouldourviewoftheworld.TwoversionsoftheSAPIR-WHORFHYPOTHESES:Astrongversion（強(qiáng)式說）：emphasizingthedecisiveroleoflanguageasthesharperofourthinkingpatterns.Aweakversion（弱式說）:butthecross-culturaldifferencesthusproducedinourwaysofthinkingarerelayive,ratherthancategorical.（相對(duì)的）Inthelater1960s,twoAmericanscholars,BrentBerlinandPaulKay,conductedalargecross-linguisticinvestigationofbasiccolorvocabulary,whichinvolved98languagesintheworld.（Berlin&Kay,1991:46）:Dani:Thereareonlytwobasiccolorwordsinthislanguage:modlafbrlight,bright,hence,whitemilifordark,dull,hence,black.7.1.5CultureinLanguageTeachingClassroomTherearethreeobjectivesfbrustoteachcultureinourlanguageclass:Togetthestudentsfamiliarwithculturaldifferences.Tohelpthestudentstranscendtheirowncultureandseethingsasthemembersoftargetculturewill.Toemphasizetheinseparability（不可分離性）ofunderstandinglanguageandunderstandingculturethroughvariousclassroompractices.ASituationallyandSociallyVariationistPerspective（情景和社會(huì)變體）"Youarewhatyousay”（Lakoff,1999）Socialfactorsthatarebelievedtoinfluenceourlanguagebehaviorinasocialcontext.Amongthesefactors,somemajoronesinclude:a）class,b）gender,c）age,d）ethnicidentity,e）educationbackground,f）occupation,g）religiousbelief.WilliamLabov:afamoussociolinguist,conductedarathermeticuloussurveyatseveraldepartmentsintheCityofNewYork:Theobjectivefbrhavingthissociolinguisticinvestigationwastoexaminetherelationshipsbetweenspeakers'socialstatus（社會(huì)階段）andtheirphonologicalVARIATIONS（語音變體）.Result:classandstylearetwomajorfactorsinfluencingthespeakers9choiceofonephonologicalvariantoveranother.ROBINLAKOFF:WomenRegister（女性諾言）inthelanguagethattakesonthefollowingfeatures:Womenusemore“fancy”colortermssuchas“mauve"and"beige"Womenuselesspowerfulcursewords.Womenusemoreintensifierssuchas"terrible"and"awful".（加強(qiáng)詞）Womenusemoretagquestions.（附加問句,反役疑問句）Womenusemorestatementquestions（陳述問句）like"Dinnerwillbereadyat7o9clock?"witharisingintonationattheend.Women'slinguisticbehaviorismoreindirectand,hence,morepolitethanmen'sWomenregisterisnotonlyusedbywomenbutalsobypowerlessmembersinsociety.uSex"isawordusedtorefertoone'sbiologicalproperty,while"gender"isawordemployedtoshowone'ssocialproperty.（社會(huì)屬性）LinguisticSexism（語言性另リ歧視）：ifwewanttoreformthelanguage,thefirstthingweneeddoistotrytochangethesociety.MoreaboutSociolinguistics.社會(huì)語言學(xué)（Sociolinguistics）,asaninterdisciplinarystudyoflanguageuse,attemptstoshowtherelationshipsbetweenlanguageandsociety.Sociolinguisticstudiescanfurtherbespecifiedastworelatedbutnotidenticalperspectivesofobservation,namely,sociolinguisticstudyofsociety（語言社會(huì)學(xué)研究）andasociolinguisticstudyoflanguage（社會(huì)語言學(xué)研究）.Asfaraslanguageteachingiscontributionswhichcanfurtherbesummarizedasfollows（Bems,1990:339）:Sociolinguisticshascontributedtoachangeofemphasisinthecontentoflanguageteaching.（有利于語言教學(xué)的重點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移）Ithasalsocontributedtoinnovationsinmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroom.（有利于語言課堂在資料和活動(dòng)方面的創(chuàng)新）Ithascontributedtoafreshlookatthenatureoflanguagedevelopmentanduse.有利于重新審視語言的發(fā)展和使用的本質(zhì)Ithascontributedtoamorefruitfulresearchinthisfield.（有利于在這ー領(lǐng)域里有成果研究）Rogers（1961）:andsetupatripartitemode（三重模型）forsuccessfulcommunication:Trytolookatthingsfromotherpersons'pointofview.Trytosensetheirfeelingtogivenissue.Trytounderstandtheirwayofknowingtheworld.7.3.2Cross-culturalCommunication（跨文化交際）WheninRomedoastheRomansdo.入鄉(xiāng)隨俗Putyourselfinother'sshoes.換位思考Oneculture'smeatisanotherculture'spoison.各有所好,各有所愛Honestyandsincerityarekeypointstomutualunderstanding.減實(shí)和真誠(chéng)是互相理解的關(guān)鍵Chapter8LanguageinUseSpeechacttheory（言語行為理論）:atheoryaboutlanguageusedtodothings.ThetheoryoriginatedwithBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthe50'softhe20thcenturyanddevelopedbyJ.R.Searle（Austin'sstudent）.Accordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwearespeaking,thuslinguisticcommunicationiscomposedofasuccessionofacts.我們?cè)谡f話的時(shí)候正在進(jìn)行各種行為,因此語言溝通是由一連串的行為Basically,JohnAustinandhisstudentJ.Searlebelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”，toperformacts."言語行為"理論是由英國(guó)牛津大學(xué)道德哲學(xué)教授奧斯汀建立的。他認(rèn)為人們說話時(shí)不僅是傳遞信息或描述物體,通常是言語本身即是ー種行為,即以言行事。Performatives（施為句）andConstatives（敘事句俵述句）Austin'sfirstshotaithetheoryistheclaimthattherearetwotypesofsentences:performativesandconstatives.奧斯汀理論的第一步是認(rèn)為句子有兩類:施為句和敘事句。performatives:Austinarguethatsentenceslikethefollowingdonotdescribethings,theycan'tbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteringofthesesentencesis,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.Andverbslikenamearecalledperformativeverbs.這些句子并不是用來描述事物的,因此沒有真假。說出這些句子是或者句子的部分本身就是實(shí)施某種行為。所以這些句子稱為施為句。其中的動(dòng)詞稱為施為性動(dòng)詞。Constatives:Constativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableandconstativesbearthetruth?value.表述句是指各種陳述,其作用是描寫某?件事件,過程或狀態(tài),有真假之分。Constatives&PerformativesAdescriptionofwhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Thespeakercannotpouranyliquidintoatubebysimplyutteringthesewords.Hemustaccompanyhiswordswiththeactualpouring.Otherwiseonecanaccusehimofmakingafalsestatement.Sentencesofthistypeareknownasconstatives.E.g.Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.描述了說話人說話的同時(shí)在做什么。說話人不能通過說這句話把液體倒入試管,他必須同時(shí)做倒液體的動(dòng)作。否則,我們可以說他作了虛假陳述。這樣的句子叫表述句。例如:我把ー些液體倒入試管。Insomesenses,constativesarealsoperformatives,e.g.Thecatisonthemat.（implicit隱性的performatives）Itellyouthatthecatisonthemat.（explicit顯性的performatives）Austinexploredthepossibilityofseparatingperformativesfromconstativesongrammaticalandlexicalcriteria（標(biāo)準(zhǔn),條件）.奧斯汀從語法和訶匯上區(qū)別施為句和表述句。（1）Typicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoice,andperformativeverbs.典型的施為句一般是a.笫一人稱單數(shù)作主語;b.用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí);c.用陳述語氣;d.用主動(dòng)語態(tài);e.動(dòng)詞是施為性動(dòng)詞。Exceptions（例外）：.Pedestriansarewarnedtokeepoffthegrass.行人禁止踐踏草坪。.Tumright,向右轉(zhuǎn)。.Thankyou..Youdidit.你犯了罪。Theaboveareperformatives.themosttypicalconstativeverbstate,whichisusedtodescribethings,maybeusedtodothings.Inuttering“IstatethatVmaloneresponsible”,thespeakerhasmadeastatementandundertakentheresponsibility,"state”一般被用來表述事物,是最典型的表述動(dòng)詞,卻也可以被用來做事。說"IstatethatTmaloneresponsible**（我聲明我承擔(dān)全部責(zé)任）的時(shí)候,說話人就發(fā)表了聲明,承擔(dān)了責(zé)任。這句話就成了performatives.8.1.2ATheoryoftheIllocutionaryAct（行事行為理論）LocutionaryAct（發(fā)話仃為）:Theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.It*sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely,theactofsayingsomething:theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminate（確定的,一定的,決定的）senseandreference.發(fā)話行為指的是用句子來敘述,報(bào)告,描寫。言內(nèi)行為指話語過程本身,諸如:句法,詞匯る恃等笠IllocutionaryAct（行事行為）：tosaysth.istodosth.Theactofexpressingthespeaker*sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker,sintention.Themakingofastatement,offerpromise,etc,inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit.theactofusingasentencetoperformafunctionsuchascommand,request,etc.行事行為是指說話過程中通過話語的ー些約定俗成的關(guān)聯(lián)力量進(jìn)行陳述,承諾等。說話帶有目的性。*IllocutionaryForce（行事語カ）：maybesaidtobeequivalenttospeaker'smeaning,contextualmeaning,orextrameaning,andmaybetranslatedintoChineseas“后タト之意’’?Theintentionorpurposeunderlyingtheactofsayingsth.（speaker'smeaning）e.g.Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewords“you""have"“door"“open"etc.andexpressedwhatthewordsliterallymean,locutionary:utteranceofailtheword.theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsb.toclosethedoor,"ormakingacomplaint.PerlocutionaryAct（取效行為）：theeffectoftheutterance.theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it'stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething,thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstances.Theresultsoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsth.取效行為是指行為本身就是講話的結(jié)果。即講話所產(chǎn)生的情感,思想,行動(dòng)等的某種反應(yīng)。ThedifferencesbetweenIllocutionaryActandPerlocutionaryActis:oneisrelatedtothespeaker'sintentionandtheothernot.8.2TheTheoryofConversationalImplicature（會(huì)話含義理論）：proposedbyOxfordphilosopherHerbertPaulGrice.Theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker*sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.會(huì)話含義指話語的言外之意,往往是說話人通過故意違反某ー準(zhǔn)則而獲得這種聽者能懂的喑含之意,含有會(huì)話含義的話語,即說者能說,聽者能懂的話語。821ThecooperativePrinciple（合作原則）簡(jiǎn)稱:CPGricearguesthatwecanmakeadistinctionbetweenwhatBsaidinthiscaseandwhatheimplied,suggestedormeant.合作原則的內(nèi)容:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.使你所說的話在其所發(fā)生的階段,符合你所參與的交談的公認(rèn)目標(biāo)或方向。Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaximsasfollows:QUANTITY（數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則）Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired（forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange）.使所說的話正好滿足當(dāng)前交談的需要的信息。Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.說出的話語所含的信息量既不能太多,也不能太少,只要滿足交談FI的的信息量即可。所說的話不要多于需要的信息。E.g.DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBwhereM匚X'saddressis.ThusBiswithholdingsomeoftheinformationrequiredandisflouting（連反）themaximofquantity（notinformativeenough）.Theimplicatureproducedis“IdonotwishtotellyouwhereMr.Xlives.”QUALITY（質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則）Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.所說的話要求真實(shí)。Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse,不要說自知是虛假的話。Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要說缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話。說出的話盡可能真實(shí),有證可查,至少是自己信以為真的話。E.gWouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?I*mafraidVmnotfeelingsowelltoday.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBisnothavinganyhealthproblemthatwillpreventhimfromgoingtoaparty.ThusBissayingsomethingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandisfloutingthemaximofquality.（Hedoesn'ttellwhethertogoornot）.Theimplicatureproducedis“Idonotwanttogotoyourpartytonight.99RELATION（關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則）Makeyourcontributionrelevant,要有關(guān)聯(lián)。說出的話要切題,不說與主題、論題或話題無關(guān)的話。E.gThehostessisanawfulone.Don'tyouthink?Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren'tthey?ThisiswhenitisknowntobothAandBthatitisentirelypossibleforAtomakeacommentonthehostess.ThusBissayingsomethingirrelevanttowhatAhasjustsaid,andfloutingthemaximofrelation.Theimplicatureproducedis"Idon'twishtotalkaboutthehostessinsucharudemanner."MANNER（關(guān)聯(lián)準(zhǔn)則）Beperspicuousandspecific.要清晰。說話清楚明白,簡(jiǎn)練而且有條理,避免含混和歧義。Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦澀。Avoidambiguity.避免歧義。Bebrief（avoidprolixity）要簡(jiǎn)潔,簡(jiǎn)短有力。Beorderly,要有序的E.gShallwegetsomethingforthekids?Yes.ButIveto（否決）I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingtheword**ice-cream".ThusBhasfloutedthemaximofmanner.Theimplicatureproducedis"Idon'twantthekidstoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream."ViolationoftheMaxims違背準(zhǔn)則參照合作原則。CharacteristicsofImplicatureCalculability可推導(dǎo)性Cancellability可取消性Non-Detachability不可推導(dǎo)性Non-Conventionality非規(guī)約性RelevanceTheory關(guān)聯(lián)理論（proposedbyDanSperberandDeirdreWilsonintheirbookRelevance:CommunicationandCognition交際與認(rèn)知）Ostensive-inferentialCommunication明示推理交際結(jié)合語碼模式和推理模式,Sperber和Wilson提出了明示推理交際的概念?！懊魇尽焙汀巴评怼笔墙浑H過程的兩個(gè)方面。從說話人的角度來說,交際是ー種明示過程,明示是通過某種使聽話人“顯映的”(manifest)方式進(jìn)行編碼,把信息意圖明白地展現(xiàn)出來。從聽話人的角度來說,交際又是ー個(gè)推理過程,推理就是根據(jù)說話人的明示行為(比如話語),結(jié)合語境假設(shè),求得語境效果,獲知說話人的交際意圖。Sperber和Wilson進(jìn)而把明示推理交際定義為:說話人發(fā)出?種刺激信號(hào)，使之對(duì)交際雙方“互相顯映”,通過這種刺激信號(hào)，說話人意欲向聽話人顯映或更加清楚地顯映一系列的命題｛I｝。Thecommunicatorproducesastimuluswhichmakesitmutuallymanifesttocommunicatorandaudiencethatthecommunicatorintends,bymeansofstimulus,tomakemanifestormoremanifesttotheaudienceasetofassumptionsI.PrincipleofRelevance(關(guān)聯(lián)原則)的定義:Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance,母ー?個(gè)明示交際行動(dòng)都傳遞ー種假定:該行動(dòng)本身具備最佳關(guān)聯(lián)性。明示交際行動(dòng):說話人表明自己說話的意圖。關(guān)聯(lián)理論3定義:①anassumptionisrelevantinacontextifandonlyifithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontext.?anassumptionisrelevanttoanindividualatagiventimeifandonlyifitisrelevantinoneormoreofthecontextsavailabletothatindividualatthattime.③aphenomenonisrelevanttoanindividualifandonlyifoneormoreoftheassumptionsitmakesmanifestisrelevanttohim.由關(guān)聯(lián)理論3定義得出的PresumptionofOptimalRelevance(最佳關(guān)聯(lián)設(shè)想)PresumptionofOptimalRelevance(最佳關(guān)聯(lián)設(shè)想):Thesetofassumptions｛1｝whichthecommunicatorintendstomakemanifesttotheaddresseeisrelevantenoughtomakeitworththeaddressee,swhiletoprocesstheostensivestimulus.發(fā)話者意欲向聽話人顯映的假設(shè)集｛1取具有足夠的關(guān)聯(lián),使聽話人值得努力去處理該明示的刺激信號(hào)。Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonethecommunicatorcouldhaveusedtocommunicate｛I｝.這一明示刺激信號(hào),是發(fā)話者傳遞假設(shè)集｛1｝時(shí)所能運(yùn)用的最大關(guān)聯(lián)的信號(hào)。DegreesofRelevance(關(guān)聯(lián)程度)：Sperber和Wilson認(rèn)為,關(guān)聯(lián)的程度取決于話語所具有的語境效果和處理話語所付出的努力這兩個(gè)因素。關(guān)聯(lián)依賴于語境,依賴于交際主體的認(rèn)知能力和認(rèn)知環(huán)境,所以關(guān)聯(lián)有強(qiáng)弱的程度之分。關(guān)聯(lián)的強(qiáng)弱程度只能用一些粗略的判斷加以比較和描述,而不能對(duì)之作絕對(duì)的量化分析。關(guān)聯(lián)是ー個(gè)由最大關(guān)聯(lián)到最小關(guān)聯(lián)或無關(guān)聯(lián)的連續(xù)體(continuum),簡(jiǎn)略些說可分為最大關(guān)聯(lián)(maximallyrelevant,強(qiáng)關(guān)聯(lián)(veryrelevant),弱關(guān)聯(lián)(weaklyrelevant)和完全不關(guān)聯(lián)(irrelevant)〇因此,話語所具有的語境效果和處理話語時(shí)所作的努力是確定關(guān)聯(lián)性的兩個(gè)因素。anassumptionisrelevantinacontexttotheextentthatitscontextualeffectsinthiscontextarelarge.語境效果與話語的關(guān)聯(lián)性成正比關(guān)系:在其他條件相同的情況下,語境效果越大,關(guān)聯(lián)性越強(qiáng);anassumptionisrelevantinacontexttotheextentthattheeffortrequiredtoprocessitinthiscontextissmall.處理話語所付出的努力是負(fù)面的因素,與關(guān)聯(lián)性成反比關(guān)系:在其他條件相同的情況下,處理話語的努力越小,關(guān)聯(lián)性就越強(qiáng)。關(guān)聯(lián)性Relevance=語境效果ContextualEffect/推理努力ProcessingEffortRevisedPrincipleofRelevance關(guān)聯(lián)的第一原則(認(rèn)知原則):人類認(rèn)知傾向于最大關(guān)聯(lián)相吻合。關(guān)聯(lián)的第二原則(交際原則):每ー個(gè)明示的交際行為都應(yīng)設(shè)想為它本身具有最佳關(guān)聯(lián)。最大關(guān)聯(lián)(maximalrelevance)是話語理解時(shí)付出盡可能小的努力而獲得的最大語境效果。最佳關(guān)聯(lián)(optimalivlevance)是話語理解時(shí)付出有效的努力之后所獲得的足夠的語境效果。8.3.2TheQ-andR-principles:proposedbyLaurenceHornTheQ-PrincipleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGrice'sQuantity,andtheR-PrincipletheRelationmaxim.TheQ-principle數(shù)量原則(hearer-based):Makeyourcontributionsufficient(cf.Quantity)TheR-principle關(guān)系原則(Speaker-based):Makeyourcontributionnecessary(cf.Relation,Quantity!,Manner3)Thehearer-basedQ-principleisasufficientcondition(允分條件)inthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto.TheR-Principle,incontrast,encouragesthehearertoinfermoreismeant.(R原則鼓勵(lì)聽者推導(dǎo)出更多的意思)Incommunication,peoplealwaystendtoconveythegreatestinformation(O-PrinciDle)withtheleastutterances(R-Principle).(用最少的語言表達(dá)最多的意思。)Inotherwords,theQ-Principleisconcernedwithcontent(內(nèi)容)，thespeakerwhofollowsthisprinciplesuppliesthesufficientinformation,theR-Principleisconcernedwiththeform(形式),thespeakerwhoemploysthisprincipleusestheminimalform,sothatthehearerisentitledtoinferthatthespeakermeansmorethanhesays.Chapter12TheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguisticsSaussure（索緒爾）：fatherofmodemlinguistics現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)之父Saussure'sideasweredevelopedalongthreelines:linguistics。吾言學(xué)），sociology（ネ上會(huì)學(xué)）andpsychology（心理學(xué)）.SaussurebelievedthatlanguageisaSystemofSign,索緒爾認(rèn)為語言是ー種符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。Thissignistheunionofaformandanidea,whichSaussurecalledtheSIGNIFIER（能指）andtheSIGNIFIED（所指）.LANGUEvs.PAROLE（語言和言語）SYNTAGMATICvs.PARADIGMATIC（組合和聚合）AYNCHRONICvs.DIACHRONIC（共時(shí)性和歷時(shí)性）ThePragueSchool（布拉格學(xué)派）：IntroductionItseeslanguageintermsofFUNCTION.（從功能的角度研究語言）Theyfullyjustifiedthesynchronicstudyoflanguagebuterectednorigidtheoreticalbarriertoseparatediachronicstudy.（布拉格學(xué)派以共時(shí)研究為主,但并沒有完全將共時(shí)研究和歷時(shí)研究想隔離）Theyemphasizedthesystemiccharacteroflanguagebyarguingthatnoelementofanylanguagecanbesatisfactorilyanalyzedorevaluatedifviewedinisolation,andassessmentcanonlybemadeifitsrelationshipisestablishedwiththecoexistingelementsinthesamelanguagesystem.（布拉格學(xué)派強(qiáng)調(diào)語言的系統(tǒng)性,她們認(rèn)為語言系統(tǒng)中任何一個(gè)成分都是相互聯(lián)系著的,不能孤立研究?jī)蓚€(gè)分開的成分。）Theytooklanguageasatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.（他們將語言看作是ー種工具,用來研究語言的ー系列功能。）PhonologyandPhonologicalOppositionsThePragueSchoolisbestknownandrememberedforitscontributiontophonologyandthedistinctionbetweenphonetics（語音學(xué):研究發(fā)音）andphonology（音位學(xué)）.LANGUEbelongstophonology,PAROLEbelongstophonetics.語ぎ是音位學(xué)，言語是語音學(xué)。Aphonememaybedefinedasthesumofthedifferentialfunctions.音位:在某ー語言單位中，具有區(qū)別意義的最小的語言單位。FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)FunctionalSentencePerspectiveisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances(ortext)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.句子功能觀:是語言分析的理論,分析篇話語中ノ語篇中所包含的信息Theme:主位:說者和聽者都知道的信息。Rheme:述位:說話人想要傳遞的新的信息。TheSubject-PredicativedistinctionisnotalwaysthesameastheTheme-Rheme8ntrast.(主語并不一定是主位)E.g.Sallystandsonthetable.(Subject) (Predicate)(Theme) (Rheme)OnthetablestandsSally.(Predicate)(Subject)(Theme) (Rheme)Sallyisthegrammaticalsubjectinbothsentences,buttheThemein(A)andtheRhemein(B).CommunicativeDynamism(CD)交際性動(dòng)カ:ismeanttomeasuretheamountofinformationanelementcarriesinasentence.衡量一句話中所承載的信息量的大小。12.2TheLondonSchool(倫敦學(xué)派)Malinowski'stheoriesMalinowski:Anthropology(人類學(xué)家),波蘭人。他認(rèn)為:Accordingtohim,themeaningofanutterancedoesnotcomefromtheideasofthewordscomprisingitbutfromitsrelationtothesituationalcontextinwhichtheutteranceoccurs.話語的意思并不來自于組成這個(gè)話語的單詞語境,而是來自于情景語境。Hedistinguishesthreetypesofcontextofsituation(三種情景語境)：Situationsinwhichspeechinterrelateswithbodilyactivity.話語與當(dāng)時(shí)身體活動(dòng)有直接關(guān)系的情景Narrativesituation,敘述情景Situationinwhichspeechisusedtofillaspeechvacuum—PHATICCOMMUNION,話語用來填補(bǔ)言語空白的情景——寒喧交談Q三種情境的具體內(nèi)容:l.BythefirsttypeofsituationMalinowskimeantthatthemeaningofawordisnotgivenbythephysicalproperties(物理性能)ofitsreferent(指示物),butbyitsfunction.Explanation:詞的意義不是它的自然屬性給的,而是所指物它的功能。.Thesecondtype:Malinowskifurtherdistinguished“thesituationofthemomentnarration（敘述本身所處的當(dāng)時(shí)當(dāng)?shù)厍榫常盿nd“thesituationreferredtobythenarrative（在交談中提到的/涉及到的情境〈言語中所談到的情景＞）'’.Thethird,itsmeaningcannotpossiblycomefromsituationsinwhichlanguageused,butformthe“atmosphereofsociabilityandthefactofthepersonalcommunicationofthesepeople”Accordingtohim,thereallinguisticdataarethecompleteutterancesinactualusesoflanguage.M正的語言數(shù)據(jù)資料……12.2.2Firth'stheoriesFirth:Halliday'steacher（韓立德的老師）FirthinfluencedbyMalinowski,heregardedlanguageasasocialprocess,asameansofsociallife,ratherthansimplyasasetofagreed-uponsemioticsandsigns.Firth把語言看作社會(huì)過程,人類社會(huì)生活的ー種方式,而不是ー種約定俗成的符號(hào)內(nèi)容。Firthdidnotseelanguageassomethingwhollyinbornorutterlyacquired.（即是天生的,又是后天形成的）Thusheinsistedthatobjectoflinguisticstudyislanguageinactualuse.研究對(duì)象:實(shí)際使用中的語言。Andthegoaloflinguisticinquiryistoanalyzemeaningfulelementsoflanguageinordertoestablishcorrespondingrelationsbetweenlinguisticandnon-linguisticelements.研究意義:語言中有意義的分成分析出來,以便于建立語言因素與非語言因素之間的對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系。Themethodoflinguisticstudyistodecideonthecompositeelementsoflanguage,explaintheirrelationsonvariouslevels,andultimatelyexplicatetheinternalrelationsbetweentheseelementsandhumanactivitiesintheenvironmentoflanguageuse.研究方法:決定語言的組成部分,說明他們?cè)诟鱾€(gè)層次上的關(guān)系,以及他們之間相互的關(guān)系。Firthheldthatmeaningisuse（意義就是使用）.Thusdefiningmeaningastherelationshipbetweenanelementatanylevelanditscontextonthatlevel.（任何層次上的成分和它的語境層次上的語境關(guān)系）Therearefivelevelsofanalysis:1.Phonological音位學(xué)Lexicalandsemantic詞匯和語義層次Morphologica!形態(tài)學(xué)Syntactic句法Contextofsituation情景語境情景語境的定義:Firthdefinedthecontextofsituationasincludingtheentireculturalsettingofspeechandthepersonalhistoryoftheparticipantsratherthanassimplythecontextofhumanactivitygoingonatthemoment,情景語境包括語言的整個(gè)文化背景和參與者的個(gè)人意識(shí),而不是語言從事的某種活動(dòng)。Byatypicalcontextofasituation,hemeantthatsocialsituationsdeterminethesocialrolesparticipantsareobligedtoplay;典型的情景語境:社會(huì)情景決定了我們?cè)谏鐣?huì)情景中所扮演的角色。Firth:Situationalcontext（情景語境）andthelinguisticcontext（語言語境）ofatext:Theinternalrelationsofthecontextitself.語篇本身的內(nèi)在關(guān)系Thesyntagmaticrelationsbetweentheelementsinthestructure.結(jié)構(gòu)成分之間的組成關(guān)系。Theparadigmaticrelationsbetweenunitsinthesystem.系統(tǒng)中單位之間的聚合關(guān)系。Theinternalrelationsofthecontextofsituation.情景語境的內(nèi)部關(guān)系。Therelationsbetweentextandnon-linguisticelements,andthegeneraleffects.語篇和非語言成分之間的關(guān)系,以及總的效果。Theanalyticalrelationsbetweenwords,partsofwords,phrasesandthespecialelementsofthecontextofsituation.分析詞,詞的一部分,短語以及情景語境中特殊成分的關(guān)系。Firth：alsolistedamodelinhispaperinlinguisticsthatcoversboththatsituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontextofatext:Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants參與者的仃關(guān)特征:personspersonalities.Theverbalactionoftheparticipants.參與者的言語行為Thenon-verbalactionofparticipants.參與者的非言語行為Therelevanttopics,includingobjects,events,andnon-linguistic,non-humanevents.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.言語行為的效果Firth'ssecondimportantcontributiontolinguisticsishismethodofPROSODICANALYSIS（韻律分析法）,calledPROSODICPHONOLOGY（韻律音位學(xué)）.Firthpointedoutthatinactualspeech,itisnotphonemesthatmakeuptheparadigmaticrelations,butPHONEMATICUNIT（準(zhǔn)音位單位）.Firth認(rèn)為構(gòu)成聯(lián)合關(guān)系的不是音位,而是準(zhǔn)音位單位。Heheldthatthebasicunitinanalyzingspeechisnotword,buttext,textinparticularcontextsofsituation.分析話語的基本單位不是ー個(gè)單詞,而是語篇〈特定語境下的語篇》。12.2.3HallidayandSystemic-FunctionalGrammar（系統(tǒng)功能理論ノ語法）System-FunctionalGrammarhastwocomponents:1.SystemGrammar系統(tǒng)語法2.FunctionalGrammar功能語法SystemicGrammaraimstoexplaintheinternalrelationsinlanguageasasystemnetwork,ormeaningpotential（意義潛勢(shì)）.FunctionalGrammaraimstorevealthatlanguageisameansofsocialinteraction.Systemic-FunctionalGrammarisbasedontwofacts:Languageusersareactuallymakingchoicesinasystemofsystemsandtryingtorealizedifferentsemanticfunctionsinsocialinteraction.Languageisinseparablefromsocialactivitiesofman.Halliday'sSystemicGrammarisdifferentfromotherlinguistictheoriesinthefollowingaspects韓立德的系統(tǒng)語法與其他語言學(xué)理論的不同體現(xiàn)在:Itattachesgreatimportancetothesociologicalaspectsoflanguage.重視語言的社會(huì)學(xué)性質(zhì)Itviewslanguageasaformofdoingratherthanaformofknowing.認(rèn)為語言是做事的ー種手段,而不是知識(shí)的ー個(gè)表現(xiàn)形式,把語言行為潛勢(shì)與實(shí)際語言行為相區(qū)分Itgivesarelativelyhighprioritytodescriptionofthecharacteristicsofparticularlanguagesandparticularvarietiesoflanguages.重視對(duì)個(gè)別語言以及個(gè)別變體的描寫Itexplainsanumberofaspectsoflanguageintermsofclines,（i.eungrammatical-?moreunusual-*lessunusual-lessusualfgrammatical）用連續(xù)性這一概念來解釋眾多語言現(xiàn)象。E.gく不符合語法的一反常一不太反常一不太慣常一符合語法》Itseeksverificationofitshypothesesbymeansofobservationfromtextsandbymeansofstatisticaltechniques.依靠對(duì)各種語篇的觀察和統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)的手段來驗(yàn)證自己的假設(shè)Ithasasitscentrethecategoryofthesystem.把系統(tǒng)范疇作為核心Insystemicgrammar,thenotionofsystemismadeacentralexplanatoryprinciple,thewholeoflanguagebeingconceivedasa“systemofsystems”,在系統(tǒng)語法里，系統(tǒng)的概念是由一條基本的解釋性的原則構(gòu)成的,即整個(gè)語言系統(tǒng)被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)“系統(tǒng)的系統(tǒng)”。Onaverygenerallevel,thereistheAXISOFCHOICEandAXISOFCHAIN:AxisofChoice（選擇軸）/paradigmatic（聚合）/意義的選擇AxisofChain（鏈狀軸）/syntagmatic（組合）/語法的選擇伴隨著話語次序出現(xiàn)的維度是連鎖軸,而沿著縱線出現(xiàn)的基本模型則構(gòu)成選擇軸。連鎖軸代表組合關(guān)系,選擇軸代表聚合關(guān)系。出現(xiàn)在選擇軸上的是對(duì)比關(guān)系。如果沒有對(duì)比,語言就失去了交際的作用。連鎖軸處理語法的表層,例如句法結(jié)構(gòu),語言單位,以及它們的級(jí)(句子,子句,詞組,詞,語素)。選擇軸處理語法的意義,例如系統(tǒng)和精密度。系統(tǒng)就是ー組存在于語法中的一系列選擇(TheSYSTEMisalistofchoicesthatareavailableinthegrammarofalanguage)例如英語中"數(shù)"的系統(tǒng)(numbersystem),包含兩種選擇:單數(shù)和復(fù)數(shù)(singularandplural)〇而人稱系統(tǒng)(personsystem)提供了三個(gè)選擇:第一人稱,第二人稱,第三人稱(firstperson,secondperson,thirdperson)〇單數(shù)I數(shù)Iー復(fù)數(shù)第一人稱I人稱-第二人稱I第三人稱Therearealsosystemsofgender,tense,andmood.(性,時(shí)態(tài),語氣)此外英語中還有其它諸如性、時(shí)態(tài)和語態(tài)等系統(tǒng)。Allsystemhavethreeessentialcharacteristics所有系統(tǒng)所具備的三個(gè)基本特點(diǎn):Thetermsinasystemaremutuallyexclusive.系統(tǒng)中的選擇選項(xiàng)是互相排除的。選擇了其中的ー個(gè),同時(shí)也就排除了對(duì)其他項(xiàng)目的選擇。Asystemisfinite..每個(gè)系統(tǒng)都是有限的。我們完全能夠確定一個(gè)系統(tǒng)的限度,準(zhǔn)確地說出它所包含的選擇的數(shù)目,ー個(gè)不多,ー個(gè)不少。Themeaningofeachterminasystemdependsonthemeaningoftheothertermsinthesystem.系統(tǒng)中每ー個(gè)選擇的意義取決于系統(tǒng)中其他選擇的意義。如果其中一個(gè)意義改變了，其他選擇也要改變意義。InEnglish,wemakechoicesbetweend