語言學(xué)課件chapter12名牌大學(xué)教授整理

Chapter121InEuropeInUSABirthofModernLinguistics1907–1916PragueSchool1926–LondonSchool1944–AmericanStructuralism1911–BloomfieldEra1933–1950Post-BloomfieldianLinguistics1950–TGGrammar1957–CaseGrammar1968–Chapter121InEuropeInUSABirtChapter122BirthofModernLinguisticsWhenisthebeginningofmodernlinguistics? Wedatemodernlinguisticsfromtheearlytwentiethcenturywhenscholarsworkedoutdetailedscientificmethodsforestablishingrelationshipsamonglanguages.ThisismarkedbythepublicationofFerdinanddeSaussure'sbookCourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916).Chapter122BirthofModernLinChapter123BirthofModernLinguisticsDuringtheyearsbetween1907to1911,SaussurelecturedongenerallinguisticsintheUniversityofGeneva.Afterhediedin1913,twoofhisstudents,C.BallyandA.Sechehaye,collectedlecturenotesfromstudentsandputthemtogethertoproducethegreatwork,CourseinGeneralLinguistics,in1916.Chapter123BirthofModernLinChapter124BirthofModernLinguisticsThisbookbecamethemostimportantsourceofSaussure'sideasandofhisinfluenceuponsucceedinggenerationsoflinguists.Saussure'sideasweredevelopedalongthreelines:linguistics,sociology,andpsychology.Chapter124BirthofModernLinChapter125BirthofModernLinguisticsWhyisSaussurehailedasthefatherofmodernlinguistics? (1)Thebook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”(1916),whichisthemostimportantsourceofSaussure'sideas,markedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.Chapter125BirthofModernLinChapter126BirthofModernLinguistics (2)Saussurewasthefirsttonoticethecomplexitiesoflanguagewhichdirectourattentiontoessentialsoflanguageandmakecleartheobjectofstudyforlinguisticsasascience.HebelievedthatlanguageisaSYSTEMOFSIGNS,calledconventions.Heheldthissignistheunionofaformandanidea,whichhecalledthesignifier(能指)andthesignified(所指).Chapter126BirthofModernLinChapter127BirthofModernLinguistics (3)Saussure’sideasonthearbitrarynatureofsign,ontherelationalnatureoflinguisticunits,onthedistinctionofLANGUEandPAROLEandofSYNCHRONICandDIACHRONIClinguistics,etc.pushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstage.Chapter127BirthofModernLinChapter128conceptthought（思維）orreference（關(guān)聯(lián)意義）

word………………..thingsymbol（符號） referent（所指）orform（形式）BirthofModernLinguisticsChapter128BirthofModernLinChapter129e.g.–CanIuseyourbike?–Ihavetogototown.(ready-madesign預(yù)成) (signifier1能指)Ihavetogoalongway.(signified1所指)(signifier2) Ican’tgoonfoot. (signified2)(signifier3) … … Ihavetogobybike.(signifiedn)(signifiern+1) Ican’tlendmybiketoyou.(generatedsign生成) (intentionalmeaning)BirthofModernLinguisticsChapter129e.g.–CanIuseyChapter1210ThePragueSchoolThePragueSchool(CircleofLinguisticsofPrague)canbetracedbacktoitsfirstmeetingundertheleadershipofV.Mathesius(1882-1946)in1926.ActivistsinthePragueSchoolincludedR.Jakobson(1896-1982)andN.Trubetzkoy(1890-1938).Chapter1210ThePragueSchoolTChapter1211ThePragueSchoolThisschoolpractisedaspecialstyleofsynchroniclinguistics,anditsmostimportantcontributiontolinguisticsisthatitseeslanguageintermsofFUNCTION.Ithasbeenanextremelyimportantsourceofinfluenceinlinguistics,ashasbeenstatedthat"NootherEuropeangrouphaswieldedquiteasmuchinfluenceasthisone",andit"hasinfluencedeveryimportantdevelopmentintheUnitedStates"(Bolinger,1968).

Chapter1211ThePragueSchoolTChapter1212ThePragueSchoolOfthemanyideasdevelopedinPragueSchool,threepointsareofspecialimportance.First,itwasstressedthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigation.Second,therewasanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.Third,languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense,thatis,asatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.Chapter1212ThePragueSchoolOChapter1213ThePragueSchool1.Phonologyandphonologicaloppositions ThePragueSchoolisbestknownandrememberedforitscontributiontophonologyandthedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology.ThemostinfluentialscholarinthisconnectionisTrubetzkoy,whosemostcompleteandauthoritativestatementsofprincipleareformulatedinhisPrinciplesofPhonologypublishedin1939.FollowingSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparole,hearguedthatphoneticsbelongedtoparolewhereasphonologybelongedtolangue.Chapter1213ThePragueSchool1Chapter1214ThePragueSchool1.Phonologyandphonologicaloppositions（音位對立）

Onthisbasishedevelopedthenotionof"phoneme"asanabstractunitofthesoundsystemasdistinctfromthesoundsactuallyproduced.Aphonememaybedefinedasthesumofthedifferentialfunctions.Soundsmaybephonemesinsofarastheycanservetodistinguishmeaning.Chapter1214ThePragueSchool1Chapter1215ThePragueSchool1.Phonologyandphonologicaloppositions

Inclassifyingdistinctivefeatures,heproposedthreecriteria:(1)theirrelationtothewholecontrastivesystem;(2)relationsbetweentheopposingelements;and(3)theirpowerofdiscrimination.Chapter1215ThePragueSchool1Chapter1216ThePragueSchool1.Phonologyandphonologicaloppositions

Trubetzkoy'scontributionstophonologicaltheoryconcernfouraspects.First,heshoweddistinctivefunctionsofspeechsoundsandgaveanaccuratedefinitionforthephoneme.Second,bymakingdistinctionsbetweenphoneticsandphonology,hedefinedthesphereofphonologicalstudies.Third,bystudyingthesyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsbetweenphonemes,herevealedtheinterdependentrelationsbetweenphonemes.Finally,heputforwardasetofmethodologiesforphonologicalstudies.Chapter1216ThePragueSchool1Chapter1217ThePragueSchool2.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)

FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)isatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances(ortexts)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.Theprincipleisthattheroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.Chapter1217ThePragueSchool2Chapter1218Syntacticfunctionsgrammatically:subject,predicate,object,adverbial,etc. objectadverbial

Igaveabooktohim.

subject predicateChapter1218SyntacticfunctionChapter1219Syntacticfunctionslogically: agent,patient,beneficiary,instrumentIgaveabooktohim. instrumentChapter1219SyntacticfunctionChapter1220Syntacticfunctionspsychologically:theme（主位） rheme（述位）(knowninformation) (newinformation)I gaveabooktohim.Chapter1220SyntacticfunctionChapter1221Tothequestion“Howareyougettingalong”,theresponsemightbelikethefollowing.I

amreadingabook.Thebook

tellsastory.Thestory

isaaboutadog.Thedog

isloyaltohismaster.Hismaster

tookhimoutoneday.Thatday

itwasnotonlysnowybutalsowindy.Thewindandsnow

wereveryheavy.…Chapter1221Tothequestion“HChapter1222 Wecanseethateachoftheabovesentencesbeginswithknowninformationandthenendswithnewinformation.Thiswayofexpressionofourthoughtsisconcordantwithourthoughtpatterns.Itispsychologicallytherightwaytoexpressourmind.Thepartthatgivestheknowninformationiscalledthemeandtheotherpartthatgivesthenewinformationrheme.Thethemeisthepsychologicalsubjectofasentence.Therhemeshowsthefunctionofthespeech(toconveyinformation).Chapter1222 WecanseethateChapter1223ThePragueSchool2.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)

Inresearchintotherelationbetweenstructureandfunction,J.FirbasdevelopedthenotionofCOMMUNICATIVEDYNAMISM(CD).Thisnotionisbasedonthefactthatlinguisticcommunicationisnotastaticphenomenon,butadynamicone.Chapter1223ThePragueSchool2Chapter1224ThePragueSchool2.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)

CDismeanttomeasuretheamountofinformationanelementcarriesinasentence.ThedegreeofCDistheeffectcontributedbyalinguisticelement,forit“pushesthecommunicationforward”.Chapter1224ThePragueSchool2Chapter1225ThePragueSchool2.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP)

ThesentenceHewascrosscouldbeinterpretedinregardtothedegreeofCDasfollows:ThelowestdegreeofCDiscarriedbyHe,andthehighestiscarriedbycross,thedegreecarriedbywasrankingbetweenthem.Chapter1225ThePragueSchool2Chapter1226grammaticalsubject

Lastnight

themousewascaughtbythecat.theme rheme logicalpsychological subjectsubjectknowninformation newinformationChapter1226Chapter1227TheLondonSchoolTheLondonSchoolgenerallyreferstothekindoflinguisticscholarshipinEngland.ThemanwhoturnedlinguisticsproperintoarecognizeddistinctacademicsubjectinBritainwasJ.R.Firth(1890-1960),thefirstProfessorofGeneralLinguisticsinGreatBritain(1944).ThemajorityofuniversityteachersoflinguisticsinBritainweretrainedunderFirthandtheirworkreflectedFirth'sideas.Hence,thename"LondonSchool"isquiteappropriateforthedistinctivelyBritishapproachtothesubject.Chapter1227TheLondonSchoolTChapter1228TheLondonSchoolFirthwasinfluencedbytheanthropologistB.Malinowski(1884-1942).Inturn,heinfluencedhisstudent,thewell-knownlinguistM.A.K.Halliday.Thethreemenallstressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage.Thus,LondonSchoolisalsoknownassystemiclinguisticsandfunctionallinguistics.Chapter1228TheLondonSchoolFChapter1229TheLondonSchool1.Malinowski'stheories MalinowskiwasProfessorofAnthropology(人類學(xué))attheLondonSchoolofEconomicsfrom1927onwards.Themostimportantaspectofhistheorizing,concernedthefunctioningoflanguage.Hesaidthatlanguage"istoberegardedasamodeofaction,ratherthanasacounterpartofthought".Accordingtohim,themeaningofanutterancedoesnotcomefromtheideasofthewordscomprisingitbutfromitsrelationtothesituationalcontextinwhichtheutteranceoccurs.Chapter1229TheLondonSchool1Chapter1230TheLondonSchool1.Malinowski'stheories Malinowskibelievedthatutterancesandsituationareboundupinextricablywitheachotherandthecontextofsituationisindispensablefortheunderstandingofthewords.Thereisnowaytocharacterizethemeaningofutterancesonthebasisofinternalconsiderationsaboutthelanguagealone.Themeaningofspokenutterancescouldalwaysbedeterminedbythecontextofsituation.Chapter1230TheLondonSchool1Chapter1231TheLondonSchool1.Malinowski'stheories

Hesaidthatinordertoassignmeaningtoasound,onehastostudythesituationsinwhichitisused.Meaningisnotsomethingthatexitsinsounds,butsomethingthatexistsintherelationsofsoundsandtheirenvironment. Malinowski'sconceptsof"linguisticenvironment"and"meaningasfunctionsintheCONTEXTOFSITUATIONprovidedusefulbackgroundforfurtherdevelopmentoflinguisticscarriedoutbyFirth.Chapter1231TheLondonSchool1Chapter1232TheLondonSchool2.Firth'stheories FirthdevelopedSaussure'sandMalinowski'stheoriesandputforwardhisownoriginalpointsofview.Firthregardedlanguageasasocialprocess.Heheldthatlanguageisameansofdoingthings.Firthattemptedtointegratelinguisticstudieswithsociologicalstudies:becausehumanbeingsareinseparablefromculturalvalues,andlanguageisanimportantpartofthem,linguisticscanhelprevealthesocialnatureofhumanbeings.Chapter1232TheLondonSchool2Chapter1233TheLondonSchool2.Firth'stheoriesFirth’sownstudyfocusedonthecontextofsituation.Hedefineditasincludingtheentireculturalsettingofspeechandthepersonalhistoryoftheparticipantsratherthanassimplythecontextofhumanactivitygoingonatthemoment. Firth’ssecondimportantcontributiontolinguisticsishismethodofPROSODICANALYSIS(節(jié)律分析法),calledprosodicphonology.Chapter1233TheLondonSchool2Chapter1234TheLondonSchool3.HallidayandSystemic-FunctionalGrammar M.A.K.Halliday(1925-)hasdevelopedtheideasstemmingfromFirth'stheoriesintheLondonSchool.HisSystemic-Functional(SF)Grammarisasociologicallyorientedfunctionallinguisticapproachandoneofthemostinfluentiallinguistictheoriesinthetwentiethcentury,havinggreateffectonvariousdisciplinesrelatedtolanguage,suchaslanguageteaching,sociolinguistics,discourseanalysis,stylistics,andmachinetranslation.Chapter1234TheLondonSchool3Chapter1235TheLondonSchool3.HallidayandSystemic-FunctionalGrammar

SFGrammarhastwocomponents:SGRAMMARandFGRAMMAR.Sgrammaraimstoexplaintheinternalrelationsinlanguageasasystemnetwork,ormeaningpotential.Itconsistsofsubsystemsfromwhichlanguageusersmakechoices.Fgrammaraimstorevealthatlanguageisameansofsocialinteraction,basedonthepositionthatlanguagesystemandtheformsthatmakeitupareinescapably（不可避免地）determinedbytheusesorfunctionswhichtheyserve.Chapter1235TheLondonSchool3Chapter1236TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar Asystemisalistofthingsbetweenwhichitispossibletochoose. AxisofChoice AxisofChainChapter1236TheLondonSchoolSChapter1237TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammarAxisofChoice AxisofChain

singularmalefirstnumbergenderpersonsecond pluralfemalethirdChapter1237TheLondonSchoolSChapter1238TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar

intention(目的)processactionprocessMaterialprocesssupervention(意外)process(Johnkickedtheball.)eventprocessBehavioralprocess(Johnlaughed.)perception(識別)processinternalizedprocessreactionprocessTransitivityMentalprocesscognitionprocess（及物性）(JohnlovesMary.)externalizedprocessVerbalprocess(Johnsaiditwascoldintheroom.)

Relationalprocess(Johnisinthebed.)

Existentialprocess(Thereisacatonthesofa.)

Chapter1238TheLondonSchoolSChapter1239TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar Inthisview,wecanregardlanguageasamulti-levelcodesystem,inwhichonesub-systemisembeddedinanother. Forexample,MEANING SEMANTICSiscodedby(SYNTAX)WORDING LEXICOGRAMMARwhichiscodedby SOUND(orWRITING)PHONOLOGYChapter1239TheLondonSchoolSChapter1240TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar Insystemicgrammar,therelationsofrealizationarerepresentedbyanarrow. Thesysteminsystemicgrammarchieflydescribesthreecomponentsoffunctions,orthreemetafunctions,theideational(概念),theinterpersonal(人際)andthetextual(語篇).Chapter1240TheLondonSchoolSChapter1241TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar material behavioral mental ideational verbal relational existential offerfunctionsinterpersonalcommand statement question textualChapter1241TheLondonSchoolSChapter1242TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar

materialprocess:todosomethinge.g.Mybrotherbuiltallthesehouses.(actor,process,goal) Hebrokethewindow. Thewindowwasbrokenbyhim.(goal,process,actor) Heranaway.(actor,process) Hecancelledthemeeting.Chapter1242TheLondonSchoolSChapter1243TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar

Mentalprocess:toshowperception,reactionandcognitione.g.Hesawthenorthstar.(sensor,process, phenomenon) Shedoesn’tlikethemilk.

Relationalprocess:toshowtherelationshipbetweenthingse.g.Carlosisapoet.(identifier,identified) Thefilmlastedtwohours. ThepianoisPeter’s.Chapter1243TheLondonSchoolSChapter1244TheLondonSchoolSystemic-functionalgrammar

Behavioralprocess:aphysicalactivitye.g.Shelaughedheartifully.(behaver,process,circumstantial環(huán)境成分) verbalprocess:toexchangeinformatione.g.Mywatchsaysit’s9:00.(sayer) existentialprocess:toexiste.g.There’sapenonthedesk.(existent)Chapter1244TheLondonSchoolSChapter1245TheLondonSchool3.HallidayandSystemic-FunctionalGrammar

SFgrammarisbasedontwofacts: (1)languageusersareactuallymakingchoicesinasystemofsystemsandtryingtorealizedifferentsemanticfunctionsinsocialinteraction;and (2)languageisinseparablefromsocialactivitiesofman.Thus,ittakesactualusesoflanguageastheobjectofstudy,inoppositiontoChomsky’sTGGrammarthattakestheidealspeaker’slinguisticcompetenceastheobjectofstudy.Chapter1245TheLondonSchool3Chapter1246AmericanStructuralismAmericanStructuralismisabranchofsynchroniclinguisticsthatemergedindependentlyintheUnitedStatesatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.Itdevelopedinaverydifferentstyle,fromthatofEurope,undertheleadershipoftheanthropologistF.Boas(1858-1942),whosetraditionhasactuallyinfluencedthewholeofthe20th-centuryAmericanlinguistics.Chapter1246AmericanStructuraChapter1247AmericanStructuralism1.Earlyperiod:BoasandSapir SpecializedintheanthropologyofNorthAmerica,Boasworkedasorganizerofasurveyofthemanyindigenous（本土的）languagesofAmericanorthofMexico.TheresultofthesurveywasthebookHandbookofAmericanIndianLanguages(1911).Boastrainedthemenwhoinvestigatedotherlanguages.Fordecades,allthegreatnamesofAmericanlinguistslearnedtheirsubjectfromBoasatfirstorsecondhand.Chapter1247AmericanStructuraChapter1248AmericanStructuralism1.Earlyperiod:BoasandSapir Boasheldthattherewasnoidealtypeorformoflanguages,forhumanlanguageswereendlesslydiverse.Boaswasstronglyopposedtotheviewthatlanguageisthesoulofarace,andheprovedthatthestructureandformofalanguagehasnothingtodowiththeevolutionofaraceandthedevelopmentofaculture.Thus,therewereonlydifferencesinlanguagestructure,whilethereisnodifferencebetweenlanguagesintermsofbeingmoreorlessreasonableoradvanced.Chapter1248AmericanStructuraChapter1249AmericanStructuralism2.Bloomfield’stheory TheprincipalrepresentativeofAmericandescriptivelinguisticsisL.Bloomfield(1887-1949).HeissuchalandmarkfigureinthehistoryofAmericanlinguisticsthattheperiodbetween1933and1950isknownasBloomfieldianEra,inwhichAmericandescriptivelinguisticsformallycameintobeingandreacheditsprimedevelopment.Chapter1249AmericanStructuraChapter1250AmericanStructuralism2.Bloomfield’stheory

Bloomfield'sLanguage(1933)wasonceheldasthemodelofscientificmethodologyandthegreatestworkinlinguisticsinthetwentiethcentury.ForBloomfield,linguisticsisabranchofpsychology,andspecificallyofthepositivisticbrandofpsychologyknownasBEHAVIORISM.Behaviorisminlinguisticsholdsthatchildrenlearnlanguagethroughachainof"stimulus-responsereinforcement",andtheadult’suseoflanguageisalsoaprocessofSTIMULUS-RESPONSE.Chapter1250AmericanStructuraChapter1251AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics InfluencedbyBloomfield’sLanguage,AmericanlinguistssuchasZ.Harris(1909-),C.Hockett(1916-2000),G.Trager,H.L.Smith,A.Hill,andR.Hallfurtherdevelopedstructuralism,characterizedbyastrictempiricism.Chapter1251AmericanStructuraChapter1252AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics Harris’sMethodsinStructuralLinguistics(1951)isgenerallytakenasmarkingthematurityofAmericandescriptivelinguistics.TheItalianlinguistG.C.Lepschyregardedthisbookasthesymbolandturningpointof"Post-BloomfieldianLinguistics".Harrisisregardedasoneofthemostdistinguishedlinguistsinthepost-Bloomfieldianera.Harris’methodasoneofthemanypossibleonesofdescriptionisofgreatsignificance.Chapter1252AmericanStructuraChapter1253AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics

Hockettwasbothalinguistandanthropologist,remainingfirmlywithinthestructuralistparadigmandhailedasastarofpost-Bloomfieldianlinguistics.ACourseinModernLinguistics(Hockett,1958)isawell-knowntextbookintheAmericandescriptivetradition.Itdevelopsmanyoftheinsightsgainedfromtheworkcarriedoutwithinthestructuralistparadigmfromthe1930sonwards.Chapter1253AmericanStructuraChapter1254AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics

ThemostsignificantfigureincontinuingthestructuralisttraditionmaybeK.Pike(1912-2000),whoandhisfollowershaveaspecialnamefortheirtechniqueoflinguisticanalysis–TAGMEMICS.Chapter1254AmericanStructuraChapter1255AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics

ForPike,alanguagehasitsownhierarchicalsystemsindependentofmeaning.Everythingintheworldishierarchical,consistingofdifferentlayersinthesystemfromsmalltobig,frombottomtotop,fromsimpletocomplex,fromparttowhole.Thus,alllanguageshavethreeinterrelatedhierarchies:phonological,grammatical,andreferential.Chapter1255AmericanStructuraChapter1256AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics Oneachlevelofthethreehierarchies,therearefourlinguisticunitshavingthefourfollowingfeatures:Slot,Class,Role,andCohesion.Thesebasicunitsarecalledgrammaticalunits,orTAGMEMES.Generallyspeaking,theSLOTspecifieswhetheracertaintagmemeisinthepositionoftheNucleusoroftheMargininthestructure.

Chapter1256AmericanStructuraChapter1257AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics TheSlotcanbeasubjectslot,apredicateslot,objectslot,andadditiveslot.TheCLASStellswhatthelinguisticentityisinthepositionofSlot,suchassuffix,noun,nounphrase,verbroot,etc.Itshowsthefunctionsofthetagmemeconcernedinthestructure,suchasactor,undergoer,benefitee,associatedagent,scope,time,etc.TheCOHESIONshowswhetheracertaintagmemeisdominatingothertagmemesorisdominatedbyothers.Chapter1257AmericanStructuraChapter1258AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics

TheformulaisSlotClass(es)Tagmeme=RoleCohesion EachofthefourcomponentsinthediagramiscalledaCELL.Sometagmemesareobligatoryandaremarkedby"+",whileoptionaltagmemesaremarkedby"-".Chapter1258AmericanStructuraChapter1259AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics Withthisformulaorfour-cellnotation,averbcanberepresentedas:Nuc(lear)VRt(verbroot)V=+Pred(icate)-Mar(gin)TsSuf(TimeSuffix)V=+Tm(time)Tm>Chapter1259AmericanStructuraChapter1260AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics

Theultimateaimoftagmemicsistoprovideatheorywhichintegrateslexical,grammatical,andphonologicalinformation.Thistheoryisbasedontheassumptionthattherearevariousrelationsinlanguage,andtheserelationscanbeanalyzedintodifferentunits.Chapter1260AmericanStructuraChapter1261AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics

Structuralismisbasedontheassumptionthatgrammaticalcategoriesshouldbedefinednotintermsofmeaningbutintermsofdistribution,andthatthestructureofeachlanguageshouldbedescribedwithoutreferencetotheallegeduniversalityofsuchcategoriesastense,moodandpartsofspeech.Chapter1261AmericanStructuraChapter1262AmericanStructuralism3.Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics Firstly,structuralgrammardescribeseverythingthatisfoundinalanguageinsteadoflayingdownrules. Secondly,structuralgrammarisempirical.Thirdly,structuralgrammarexaminesalllanguages,recognizinganddoingjusticetotheuniquenessofeachlanguage. Lastly,structuralgrammardescribeseventhesmallestcontraststhatunderlieanyconstructionoruseofalanguage.Chapter1262AmericanStructuraChapter1263Transformational-GenerativeGrammar Inthelate1950s,anewtheoryappearedinAmericaandviolentlypunchedtheprevailingstructuralistdescriptivelinguistics.ThefounderofitwasA.N.Chomsky(1928-).Withthestructuralistmethodology,Chomskytriedtoopenupanewroutewhenhefoundthattheclassificationofstructuralelementsoflanguageaccordingtodistributionandsubstitutionhaditslimitations.FromthispracticeChomskygraduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar.Chapter1263Transformational-GChapter1264Transformational-GenerativeGrammar

ThepublicationofhisSyntacticStructures(1957)markedthebeginningoftheChomskyanRevolution.Fromitsbirthtothepresentday,TGGrammarhasseenfivestagesofdevelopment.(1)TheClassicalTheoryaimstomakelinguisticsascience.(2)TheStandardTheorydealswithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinalinguisticstheory.Chapter1264Transformational-GChapter1265Transformational-GenerativeGrammar

(3)

TheExtendedStandardTheoryf